
tolttflB 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf $NX] 6 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



REVISED EDITION 



LESSONS 



IN THE 



STRUCTURE, LIFE. ID GROWTH OF PLUS 



FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 



J BY 



ALPHONSO WOOD, A.M., Ph.D 

LATE PROF. OF BOTANY IN THE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, NEW YORK ; AUTHOR OF THE 
CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, ETC 



V 



it 



REVISED AND EDITED BY 



OLIVER R. WILLIS, A.M., Ph.D 



INSTRUCTOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ALEXANDER INSTITUTE ; AUTHOR OF PLANTS OF 
NEW JERSEY AND FLORA OF WESTCHESTER CO., N. Y 



NOV 15 1889 

Copyright, 1870. and 1859, by 

A. S. BARNES & COMPANY 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 



\ 



\ 



WOOD'S BOTANIES. 



OBJECT LESSONS IN BOTANY, pp. 340, 12mo. An introduction to the 
Science, full of lively description and truthful illustrations ; with a limited Flora, but 
a complete System of Analysis. 

THE BOTANIST AND FLORIST, pp. 620, l2mo. A thorough text-book, com- 
prehensive and practical ; with a Flora, and System of Analysis equally complete. 
M I have been deeply impressed, almost astonished (writes Prof. A. Winchell, of 
University of Michigan), at the evidence which this work bears of skillful and 
experienced authorship— nice and constant adaptation to the wants and conveniences 
of students in Botany," etc. 

REVISED LESSONS IN THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS. 
These Lessons constitute the introductory part of the "Botanist and Florist." The 
chapters on Structure and Morphology have been revised, and those on Histology and 
Physiology rewritten. The Lessons will still be the introduction to the " Botanist 
and Florist ; " they will also be published separately in a book of about 200 pp., and 
present the subject to the student in a clear, concise manner. They will be a 
suitable companion and introduction to any of the Manuals of the Floras of the 
several parts of the country. 

THE CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, pp. 850, 8vo. The principles of the Science 
more fully announced and illustrated— the Flora and Analysis complete, with all our 
plants portrayed in language both scientific and popular. " The whole science (writes 
Prof. G. ±T. Perkins, of Vermont University), so far as it can be taught in a college 
course, is well presented, and rendered unusually easy of comprehension. I regard 
the work as most admirable." 

THE PLANT RECORD — a beautiful book, for classes and amateurs, showing, in 
a few pages, how to analyze a plant— any plant, and furnishing tablets for the sys- 
tematic record of the analysis. 

FLORA ATLANTICA, op WOOD'S DESCRIPTIVE FLORA, pp. 448, 
12mo. This work is equivalent to the Part IV of the Botanist and Florist, being a 
succinct account of all the plants growing East of the Mississippi River, both native 
and cultivated, with a system of analytical tables well-nigh perfect. 

WOOD'S BOTANICAL APPARATUS— a complete outfit, for the field and the 
herbarium. It consists of a portable trunk, a Wire Drying Press, a Knife-trowel, a 
Microscope, and Forceps. 



'FOURTEEN WEEKS" IN EACH SCIENCE. 

By J. Dorman Steele, Ph.D., LL.D., F. G. S., Etc. 



Now Beady : 



PHILOSOPHY. 
CHEMISTRY. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 
GEOLOGY. 
A KEY to Practical Questions in Steele's Works. 
Seven volumes; each, post-paid, §1 



ZOOLOGY. 
ASTRONOMY. 



\o. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

Dr. Wood's "Lessons in the Structure and Growth of 
Plants" was designed for an introduction to this delightful 
department of Natural History, and to qualify the student in 
Botany to make intelligent use of a Flora. The book is well 
known to educators, and the instructors in our high-schools and 
colleges have acknowledged its worth and conferred upon it the 
highest degree of approval by using it as a text-book. 

It was written more than twenty years ago ; since then im- 
proved methods of examination, with the aid of new microscopical 
appliances, have revealed much in all departments of biology, and 
especially in the structure and formation of plant-tissues. 

These discoveries have introduced in some parts new and in 
others additional names. 

To bring the work to the advanced state of the science, the 
chapters on Organography have been revised, and the parts on 
Histology and Physiology have been entirely rewritten and 
newly illustrated, and the whole reset in fresh and modern type. 

The third chapter of the Introduction has been recast, en- 
larged, and newly illustrated. 

In preparing the parts that are rewritten, the Editor has 
aimed not to enlarge, but rather to be more concise than the 
Author was upon the same subjects, believing that in a text-book 
brief and clear statement is more acceptable to the teacher and 
useful to the learner than lengthy discussion. 

The chapters and sections on Structure, or Organography, 
have been revised as to nomenclature ; but otherwise have not 
been disturbed, and the sequence of subjects has been preserved. 

The Index and Glossary have been altered and enlarged, to 
suit the additional and revised matter; the words in the Glossary 
have been divided and accented to correspond with the latest 
authorities on Pronunciation. 



iv EDITOR'S preface. 

It was the intention of the Author that this work should be a 
text-book suited to the needs of students in our Academies, 
High-schools, and Colleges, intending his " Object Lessons in 
Botany" to meet the wants of younger pupils; hence, in the 
changes that have been made this design has been kept in view. 

The work now, with its revision, new matter, additional illus- 
trations, and fresh type, is substantially a new book. 

Its original character for educational purposes has been care- 
fully preserved and in several features improved. It is in its new 
form a suitable introduction and companion to any of the man- 
uals of the Flora of North America. 

It affords the Editor great pleasure to record the acknowledg- 
ment of his obligations to his personal friends among the botanists 
of New York and vicinity for their sympathy in the work. 

He is especially indebted to Dr. G-eo. Macloskie, Senior Pro- 
fessor of Botany and Zoology in the John C. Green School of 
Science, at the College of New Jersey, for efficient aid and judi- 
cious criticism, upon the subjects of Histology and Physiology, 
where the statements are based upon microscopic examination. 

His gratitude is due to Dr. John S. Newberry, of Columbia 
College, for his kind suggestions and encouragement. 

Also to Hon. Judge A. Brown and to Mr. W. H. Rudkin, of 
New York, for their kind and valuable advice. 

O. B. WILLIS, Editok. 

White Plains, New York, 
March, 1889, 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

An enlightened instructor is disappointed, on opening a text-book, if he 
does not find some hint from the author as to the mode of using it. 

Our best teachers of Botany differ as to what should be the subject first 
presented to the pupil's notice. 

One would commence with the Seed ; another, with the Flower ; a third, 
with Histology and Physiology. 

These Lessons are so arranged that the learner may commence either 
with the Flower, which would lead through Organography, or Structural 
Botany, up to the Seed ; or, if the teacher prefer, he can have his class com- 
mence with the Second part, which treats of the Cells and "Vessels that build 
up plants and trees. 

In either case, we advise that the four chapters which make up the intro- 
duction be carefully studied, by using them as reading and talking lessons, 
with simple illustrations, until they are well understood. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS: 



TOG-ETHER WITH A SYLLABUS OE THE MORE PRACTICAL, SUB- 

JECTS, DESIGNED AS EXERCISES ON THE BLACKBOARD, 

PRELIMINARY TO THE LESSONS. 



N. ~B.— We give the Syllables of but a few Chapters, and of fewer entire, in order that the 
pupil may exercise his own skill in supplying deficiencies. The teacher should require 
this. The abbreviation {etc.) indicates a table unfinished. 

INTRODUCTION Page 9 

Chapter I. Aids to the Study of Botany 9 

Chapter II. Departments of Science 11 

* Existence, individually ; (§ 13.) 

a As an inorganic mass, is A Mineral. 

b As an organic body, 

—Endowed with life A Plant. 

—Endowed with life and perception - An Animal. 

* Existence, collectively, Nature. (§ 12), etc. 

* Existence, objectively, Science. (§ 16-18), etc. 

* Department of Botany. (§ 19-23), etc. 

* Classification. (§ 27-30), etc. 

* Nomenclature. (§ 25, 26.) 

a Local appellatives in common use Trivial Names. 

b Universal appellatives adopted in Science Latin Names. 

—The name of the G-enus G-eneric. 

—The, name of the Species Specific. 

—The name of the Individual Proper. 

Chapter HI. Stages of Plant Life 15 

Eirst Stage ; asleep in the Seed Embryo. 

Second Stage ; development. 

—a Awakening and beginning to grow Germination. 

—b Developing leaves and branches "Vegetation. 



2 CONTENTS. 

Third Stage ; leaves transformed to flowers Flowering. 

Fourth Stage ; maturity. 

— c Flowers maturing into fruit Fructification. 

— d Fruit ripe and the plant exhausted. Hibernation Death. 

Chapter IV. Term of Plant Life 20 

§ Plant fruiting but once, and 

—a Dying in its first year (\) Annual Herb. 

— b Dying after its second year (2) Biennial Herb. 

— c Dying after many years Monocarpic. 

§ Plant fruiting more than once (perennial), 

a With annual stems, is a U Perennial Herb. 

b With perennial stems becoming woody. 

1, If lower than or equaling the human stature TJndershrub. 

2, If taller, 7 to 20 feet high Shrub. 

3, If still taller, with a distinct trunk A Tree. 

t Trees with annual foliage, shed in Autumn Deciduous. 

t Trees with perennial foliage Evergreen. 

PART FIRST.-STRTJCTURAL BOTANY, OH ORGANOGRAPHY 23 

Chapter I. The Flower. It may consist of 23 

a The leafy Envelopes, or Perianth, in 2 whorls or sets. 

1, The outer circle, of Sepals, usually green Calyx. 

2, The inner circle, of Petals, usually colored Corolla. 

b The Essential Organs, also in 2 whorls or sets. 

3, An outer set, of Stamens, within the corolla Androscium. 

4, The inner and central set, of Pistils G-yncecium. 

c The base, or platform on which these organs stand. Torus. 

Chapter H. Plan of the Flower.— The Typical Flower 25 

1, Consisting of 4 whorled sets of organs, is Complete. 

2, Each set having the same number of parts Symmetrical. 

3, The parts composing each set uniform Regular. 

4, AH the parts separate and distinct from each other Free. 

5, Parts of adjacent sets alternating in position Alternate. 

Chapters IH. and IV. Anomalous Flowers. Deviations from the Type. 28 

1, Variations in the Radical Number From fy to jffr 

2, Deficiencies, rendering the flower 

a Incomplete. 

—Corolla wanting Apetalous. 

—Corolla and calyx both wanting Naked. 

b Imperfect. 

—The stamens wanting $ Pistillate. 

—The pistils wanting $ Staminate. 



CONTENTS. 3 

c TTnsyminetrical, from the suppression of a part of some set. 
d Organs opposite, from the suppression of some entire set. 

3, Redundancies. 

a Organs increased in number, 

—By multiples Multiplication. 

—By clusters Chorisis. 

b Appendages. 

— Horn-like nectaries projecting backward Spurs. 

—Attached to the inside of the petals Scales. 

-Enlarged scales Crown. 

— G-landular bodies G-lands. 

4, Union of Parts. 

a By Cohesion. 

—Petals united G-amopetalous, or Monopetalous. 

—Stamens united Monadelphous. 

—Pistils united Compound. 

b By Adhesion. 

—Parts blended with the Calyx Perigynous. 

—Parts blended with the Ovary Epigynous. 

5, Irregularities.— Torus lengthened, excavated, etc. 

—Like organs, becoming unequal in size, etc. 

Chapter V. Of the Floral Envelopes, or Perianth 36 

Chapter VI. Forms of the Perianth .- 41 

1, Dialypetalous, or Polypetalous. 

* Regular. 

—a Four long-clawed petals spreading at right-angles.. Cruciferous. 

— b Five short-clawed spreading petals Rosaceous. 

— cFive spreading petals on long erect claws... Caryophyllaceous. 
— d A 6-leaved gradually spreading perianth Liliaceous. 

* Irregular. 

— e Five petals, 2 pairs and an odd one Papilionaceous. 

— -f Six petals, one of them lip-like Orchidaceous. 

2, G-amopetalous, or Monopetalous. (§ 102.) 

* Regular. 

—a Tube very short, border flat, spreading Rotate. 

— b Tube very short, border wide, concave, Cup-form, etc., etc. 

* Irregular. 

— <? Cylindrical tube split down, etc. (§ 103.) 
§ Transformations of the Perianth. (§ 104-108.) 

1, In the Compositaa. A circle of dry scales or bristles Pappus. 

2, In the Bog-Rushes. A circle of 6 (more or less) bristles Setae. 

3, In the Sedges (Carices). A bottle-shaped envelope Perigynium. 

4, In the Grasses. Chaff-like coverings G-lunus, and Pales. 



CONTENTS. 

Chapter VII. Attributes of the Essential Organs.— Parts 46 

1, In respect to Number.— a etc. (§ 118, two conditions.) 

2, In position. 

—a On the torus, free from all other organs Hypogynous. 

—b Adherent to the calyx, etc. (§ 119, four other conditions.) 

3, In cohesions. 

—a United into one set, etc. (§ 120, five modes.) 

Chapter VIII. The Pistils.— Its Parts (§ 125). 52 

1, The simple ovary. 

—a Encloses a single cavity Its Cell. 

— b Produces little buds becoming seeds Ovules. 

—c And two fleshy ridges bearing the ovules Placentae. 

2, The compound ovary. 

—a May contain as many cells as carpels. 

—b Must have 2 (or a double) placentae in each cell. 

— c And an equal number of ovules in each cell. 

3, The number of carpels in a compound ovary is known-- 

1, By the number of distinct styles, if any. 

2, By the number of distinct stigmas. 

3, By the number of the cells ; or, if there be but one, 

4, By the number of external lobes, angles, or sutures. 

Chapter IX. The Ovules. 58 

Chapter X. The Emit.— Pericarp.— Dehiscence 60 

Chapter XI. Eorms of the Pericarp. (See Syllabus, § 150) 64 

Chapter XII. The Seed 69 

Chapter XIII. Germination 74 

Chapter XIV. The Boot, or Descending Axis.— Eorms 78 

* Axial Roots, or Tap-Roots, having the main axis devoloped. 

1, The woody tap-root of most trees, branching Ramous. 

2, Tuberous tap-roots. 

—a Shaped like a spindle (Beet) Eusiform. 

—b Shaped like a cone (Carrot) Conical 

—c Shape rounded or depressed (Turnip) Napiform. 

* InaxLal Roots, having only the branches developed. 

3, Root consisting of numerous thread-like divisions Eibrous. 

4, Root fibro-tuberous. 

—a Some of the fibers thickened Easciculate. 

—b Eibers abruptly knotted Nodulous. 

— c The knots at regular intervals Moniliform. 

— d Eibers bearing little tubers Tubercular. 



CONTENTS. 5 

Chapter XT. Of the Stern, or Ascending Axis 84 

Chapter XVI. Forms of the Leaf -Stems, aerial, caulescent 88 

1, Jointed, or hollow stems of Grasses, Sedges, Canes Culm. 

2, The stout woody stem of Trees, covered with bark Trunk. 

3, The woody, simple columns of Palms, etc., without bark Caudex. 

4, Weak, slender stems, climbing or trailing Vine. 

Chapter XVTL Forms of Scale-Stems, acaulescent 92 

1, Slender, prostrate, rooting, on or in the ground Creeper. 

2, Meshy, thick, rooting, mostly under ground Rhizome. 

3, Swollen with starch, under ground, with buds (eyes) Tuber. 

4, Bulbous, solid, with thin scales, under ground Corm. 

5, Bulbous, consisting mostly of thick scales Bulb. 

Chapter XVIH. The Leaf -Bud. Vernation (and ^Estivation, Chap. XXTV) 97 

* Separate; regarding a single leaf (petal or sepal) in bud. 

1, Leaf flat, neither folded nor rolled in the bud Open. 

2, Bent forward, apex toward the base Reclined. 

3, Folded on the axis Conduplicate. 

4, Folded in plaits like a fan Plicate. 

5, Rolled on its axis downward Circinate. 

6, Rolled with its axis. 

— a From one edge into a scroll Convolute. 

—b From both edges inward Involute. 

— - c From both edges backward Revolute. 

* G-eneral ;— regarding the whole bud. 

1, Edges meeting, Valvate. 

—"With the margins straight. Valvate. 

— With the margins involute Induplicate, 

—With the margins revolute Reduplicate. 

2, One edge overlapping, each leaf oblique — Twisted or Contorted. 

3, Both edges overlapping, Imbricate. 

a Conduplicate leaves, alternately. 

—Embracing Equitant. 

—Half embracing Obvolute. 

b Leaves in threes, one of them exterior Triquetrous. 

c Leaves in fives, two of them exterior Quincuncial. 

d Each leaf or petal embracing all those within Convolute. 

e Exterior petal largest (Sweet Pea) Vexillary. 

4, G-amopetalous corolla folded in plaits. 

—Plaits straight Plicate. 

—Plaits oblique Supervolute. 

Chapter XIX. Of the Leaf.— Phyllotaxy 102 



CONTENTS. 

Chapter XX. Morphology of the Leaf .— § Venation 106 

1, Veins simple and parallel, as in the Endogens Parallel-veined. 

2, Veins dividing without uniting again, as in Eerns Eork- veined. 

3, Veins netted, as in the Exogens, viz. : 

a Larger veins arranged as in a feather Pinni- veined. 

b Larger veins 5 to 9, arranged as the fingers Pal mi -veined. 

c Larger veins only 3, arranged as the fingers Triple-veined. 

§ Special Veins. 

1, In feather-veined leaves. 

—The chief vein forming the axis Mid-vein. 

—Lateral branches of the mid-vein Veinlets. 

—The branches of the veinlets Veinulets. 

2, In palmi-veined leaves, or triple-veined. 

a The coequal veins running through the blade, are Veins 

b The branches of the veins, are (as in feather-veined) Veinlets, 

Chapter XXI. Eorms of Leaves. (Morphology, continued) 112 

* Pinni-veined Leaves. 

a Lower veinlets longer than the upper. 

1, Outline of an egg Ovate. 

2, Outline of a lance, or narrow-ovate Lanceolate. 

3, Eorm of the Greek letter A Deltoid. 

b The middle veinlets longest, lower and upper equal. 

4, Circular, or nearly so Orbicular. 

5, Outline of an elliptic spring Elliptical. 

6, Egg-shaped, with equal rounded ends Oval. 

7, Narrowly oval, with obtuse ends Oblong. 

The upper veinlets longest. 

8, Inversely ovate, narrower at the base Obovate. 

9, Inversely lanceolate, narrower at the base Oblanceolate. 

10, Obtuse at apex, narrowed to the base Spatulate. 

11, Shaped like a wedge, the point at base Cuneate. 

d Lowest veinlets longest and recurved. 

12, A re-entering angle, or sinus, at base. Heart-shaped. .Cordate. 

13, Base-lobes ear-shaped Auriculate. 

14, Base-lobes arrow-shaped Sagittate. 

15, Base-lobes turned outward Hastate. 

* Dissected Eorms. 

a Pinnately cut or divided. 

1, With regular lateral segments Pinnatifid. 

2, With segments recurved or hooked Runcinate. 

3, Terminal segment enlarged Lyrate. 

4, Segments many and narrow Pinnatisect. 

5, Segments and sinuses rounded Sinuate. 

b Palmately cut or lobed. 



CONTENTS. 7 

6, Lobes only 3 — Trilobate. 

7, Lobes 5 or more Pamiately-lobed. 

8, Lobes deeply divided Palmately-parted. 

9, Side-lobes again 2-lobed Pedate. 

Chapter XXH. Forms of Compound Leaves 118 

* Pmnately compound. 

a Once compounded, consisting of— 

1, Two leaflets opposite and equal Binate. 

2, Three leaflets, the odd one petiolulate Pinnately-trifoliate. 

3, Four or more equal leaflets, all in pairs Equally pinnate. 

4, Five or more equal leaflets, all but one in pairs.. Odd-pinnate. 

5, Alternate leaflets smaller Interruptedly pinnate. 

b Twice compounded, consisting of— 

6, Nine leaflets (or 3 trifoliate leaves) Biternate. 

7, Fifteen or more leaflets (3 pinnate leaves) . . : Bipinnate. 

c Thrice compounded, having 27 leaflets Triternate, etc. 

d Irregularly much compounded Decompound. 

* Palmately compounded, consisting of— 

10, Three equal leaflets all alike sessile (Clover)... Palmi-trifoliate. 

11, Five or 7 leaflets, all equally sessile Digitate 

Chapter Xx ill. Transformations of the Leaf 124 

Chapter XXIV. Metamorphosis of the Flower. (See Chap. XVIII)... 129 

Chapter XXV and XXVI. Inflorescence.— Special Forms 134 

§ Evolution. 

—a One flower only from a bud Solitary. 

—b From axillary buds, the lowest first opening Centripetal. 

—c From terminal buds, the central first Centrifugal. 

§ Special Forms of Inflorescence. 
* Centripetal, or Indefinite. 
a Flowers sessile. 

—1, Along a slender rachis Spike 

—2, Along a thick fleshy rachis Spadix. 

— 3, On an extremely short rachis Head 

— 4, Spike of imperfect fls. caducous together Ament. 

b Flowers borne on pedicels. 

5, Along the sides of a lengthened rachis Raceme. 

6, Along a short rachis, the lower pedicels lengthened. Corymb. 

7, Clustered on an extremely short rachis Umbel. 

e The pedicels themselves branched. 

—8, Loosely Panicle. 

—9, Compactly Thyrse. 



S CONTENTS. 

* Centrifugal, or Definite. 

1, Clusters open, loose, of various forms Cyme. 

2, Clusters compact, terminal Fascicle. 

3, Clusters compact, axillary and opposite Verticils. 

4, Cyme unilateral, unrolling as it develops Scorpoid Raceme. 

PART SECOND.— PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY 143 

Chapter I. Of the Vegetable Cell 143 

Chapter U. Of the Vegetable Tissues 156 

Chapter HI. Tissues and Plant Growth and Dicotyledonous Structure . 161 

Chapter IV. Monocotyledonous Structure 168 

Chapter V. Leaf Structure, Circulation and Movements of Fluids 171 

Chapter VI. Fertilization ; Polination ; Cross-fertilization 176 

PART THIRD.— SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 183 

Chapter I. G-eneral Principles of Classification 183 

Chapter TL. The Natural System 186 

Chapter HE. Rules for Nomenclature 193 

Chapter IV. Botanical Analysis 195 

INDEX AND GLOSSARY 199 



INTRODUCTION 



CHAPTER I. 

AIDS TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY. 

1. The proper season for the commencement of 
the study of Botany in schools is late in winter, at 
the opening of the first session after New- Year's. The 
class will thus be prepared beforehand, by a degree of 
acquaintance with first principles, for the analysis of 
the earliest Spring-flowers — the Blood-root, Liverwort, 
Spring-beauty, Sweet Mayflower, and the Violets. We 
have arranged the topics of the present treatise with 
a special view to the convenience of the learner in 
this respect, beginning with that which is the first 
requisite in analysis — the Flower. 

2. Specimens of leaves, stems, roots, fruit, flowers, etc., in unlimited sup- 
ply are requisite during the whole course. In the absence of the living, let 
the dried specimens of the herbarium be consulted. Crayon sketches upon 
the blackboard, if truthful, are always good for displaying minute or obscure 
forms. In the city, classes in Botany may employ, at small expense, a col- 
lector to supply them daily with fresh specimens from the country. More- 
over, the gardens and 'conservatories will furnish to such an abundant supply 
of cultivated species for study and analysis, with almost equal advantage,— 
since the present work embraces, together with the native flora, all exotics. 

3. An Herbarium (Latin, hortus siccus, or h. s.) is a 
collection of botanic specimens, artificially dried, pro- 
tected in papers, and systematically arranged. Herba- 



10 HSTTKODUCTION. [9, 10. 

via are useful in many ways : — (a) for the preservation 
of specimens of rare, inaccessible, or lost species ; 
(6) for exchanges, enabling one to possess the flora of 
other countries ; (c) for refreshing one's memory of 
early scenes and studies; (d) for aiding in more exact 
researches at leisure ; (e) for the comparison of species 
with species, genus with genus, etc. 

4. Apparatus. — For collecting botanic specimens, a 
strong knife for digging and cutting is needed, and a 
close tin box, fifteen inches in length, of a portable 
form. Inclosed in such a box, with a little moisture, 
specimens will remain fresh a week. 

5. Specimens for the herbarium should represent 
the leaves, flowers, and fruit — and, if herbaceous, the 
root also. Much care is requisite in so drying them 
as to preserve the natural appearance, form, and color. 
The secret of this art consists in extracting the moist- 
ure from them before decomposition can take place. 

6. The drying-press, to be most efficient and con- 
venient, should consist of a dozen quires of unsized 
paper, at least 11x16 inches folio ; two sheets of 
wire-gauze (same size) as covers, stiffened by folded 
edges ; and three or four leather straps a yard in 
length, with buckles. When in use, suspend this press 
in the wind and sunshine ; or, in rainy weather, by 
the fire. In such circumstances, specimens dry well 
without once changing. But if boards be used instead 
of wire-gauze, the papers must be changed and dried 
daily. Succulent plants may be immersed in boiling 
water before pressing, to hasten their desiccation. 

7. The lens, either single, double, or triple, is very 
serviceable in analysis. In viewing minute flowers, 
or parts of flowers, its use is indispensable. Together 






10, 11.] DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 1 1 

with the lens, a needle in a handle, a penknife, and 
tweezers are required for dissection. 

8. The compound microscope is undoubtedly a 
higher aid in scientific investigation than any other 
instrument of human invention. It is like the bestow- 
ment of a new sense, or the opening of a new world. 
Through this, almost solely, all our knowledge of the 
cells, the tissues; growth, fertilization, etc., is derived. 
The skillful use of this noble instrument is itself an 
art, which it is no part of our plan to explain. 

9. On the preparation of botanical subjects for examination we remark : 
the field of view is small, and only minute portions of objects can be seen at 
once ; the parts must be brought under inspection successively. 

10. The tissues of leaves, etc., are best seen by transmitted light. They 
are to be divided by the razor or scalpel into extremely thin parings or cut- 
tings. Such cuttings may be made by holding the leaf between the two 
halves of a split cork. They are then made wet and viewed upon glass. The 
stomata are best seen in the epidermis stripped off ; but in the Sorrel-leaf 
(Oxalis violacea) they appear beautifully distinct upon the entire leaf. 

11. Woody tissues, etc., may be viewed either as opaque or transparent. 
Sections and cuttings should be made in all directions, and attached to the 
glass by water, white of egg, or Canada balsam. To obtain the elementary 
cells separately for inspection, the fragment of wood may be macerated in a 
few drops of nitric acid added to a grain of chlorate of potassa. Softer 
structures may be macerated simply in boiling water. 



CHAPTER II. 

DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 

12. Three great departments in nature are univer- 
sally recognized : the mineral, vegetable, and animal 
kingdoms. The first constitutes the Inorganic; the 
other two, the Organic World. 

13. A mineral is an inorganic mass of matter — 
that is, without distinction of parts or organs. A 



1 2 INTRODUCTION. [11, 12. 

stone, for example, may be broken into any number 
of fragments, each of which will retain all the essen- 
tial characteristics of the original body, so that each 
fragment will still be a stone. 

14. A plant is an organized body, endowed with 
vitality but not with sensation, composed of distinct 
parts, each of which is essential to the completeness 
of its being. A Tulip is composed of organs which 
may be separated and subdivided indefinitely, but no 
one of the fragments alone will be a complete plant. 

15. Animals, like plants, are organized bodies en- 
dowed with vitality, and composed of distinct parts, 
no one of which is complete in itself ; but they are 
elevated above either plants or minerals by their 
power of perception. 

16. Physics is the general name of the science 
which treats of the mineral or inorganic world. 

17. Zoology relates to the animal kingdom. 

18. Botany is the science of the vegetable king- 
dom. It includes the knowledge of the forms, organs, 
structure, growth, and uses of plants, together with 
their history and classification. Its several depart- 
ments correspond to the various subjects to which 
they relate. Thus, 

19. Morphology treats of the special organs of plants 
as compared with each other ; it especially relates to 
the mutual or typical transformations which the 
organs undergo in the course of development. 

20. Vegetable Histology treats of the elementary 
tissues — the organic units or cells out of which the 
vegetable fabric is constructed. 

21. Physiological Botany is that department which 
relates to the vital action of the several organs and 



12, 13.] DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 1 3 

tissues, including both the vital and chemical phe- 
nomena in the germination, growth, and reproduction 
of plants. It has, therefore, a practical bearing upon 
the labors of husbandry in the propagation and cult- 
ure of plants, both in the garden and in the field. 

22. Systematic Botany arises from the consideration 
of plants in relation to each other. It aims to arrange 
and classify plants into groups and families, according 
to their mutual affinities, so as to constitute of them 
all one unbroken series or system. 

23. Descriptive Botany, or Phytology, is the art of 
expressing the distinctive characters of species and 
groups of plants with accuracy and precision, in order 
to their complete recognition. A Flora is a descrip- 
tive work of this kind, embracing the plants of some 
particular country or district. 

24. Finally, in its extended sense, Botany comprehends also the knowledge 
of the relations of plants to the other departments of nature — particularly to 
mankind. The ultimate aim of its researches is the development of the 
boundless resources of the vegetable kingdom, for our sustenance and pro- 
tection as well as education; for the healing of our diseases and the allevia- 
tion of our wants and woes. This branch of botanical science is called 
Applied Botany, including several departments — as Medical Botany, or Phar- 
macy; Agricultural Botany, or Chemistry; Pomology, etc. 

25. The name of a plant or other natural object 
is twofold, — the trivial or popular name, by which it 
is generally known in the country ; and the Latin 
name, by which it is accurately designated in science 
throughout the world. For example, Strawberry is 
the popular name, and Fragaria vesca the Latin or 
scientific name, of the same plant. In elementary 
treatises, like the present, for the sake of being readily 
understood, plants are usually called by their popular 
names. Yet we earnestly recommend the learner to 



14 INTRODUCTION. [13. 

accustom himself early to the use of the more accu- 
rate names employed in science. 

26. The Latin name of a plant is always double — 
generic and specific. Thus Fragaria is generic, or the 
name of the genus of the plant — vesca is specific, or 
the name of the species. 

27. A Species embraces all such individuals as 
may have originated from a common stock. Such 
individuals bear an essential resemblance to each other 
as well as to their common parent, in all their parts. 
For example, the White Clover (Trifolium repens) is a 
species embracing thousands of contemporary individ- 
uals scattered over our hills and plains, all of common 
descent, and producing other individuals of their own 
kind from their seed. 

28. To this law of resemblance in plants of one 
common origin there are some apparent exceptions. 
Individuals descended from the same parent often 
bear flowers differing in color, or fruit differing in 
flavor, or leaves differing in form, etc. Such plants 
are called Varieties. They are rarely permanent, often 
exhibiting a tendency to revert to their original type. 
Varieties occur chiefly in species maintained by culti- 
vation, as the Apple, Potato, Rose, Dahlia. They also 
occur more or less in native plants (as Hepatica tri- 
loba), often rendering the limits of the species ex- 
tremely doubtful. They are due to the different cir- 
cumstances of climate, soil, and culture to which they 
are subjected, and continue distinct until left to mul- 
tiply spontaneously from seed in their own proper soil, 
or some other change of circumstances. 

29. A Genus is an assemblage of species closely 
related to one another in the structure of their flowers 



13, 14.] THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 1 5 

and fruit, and having more points of resemblance than 
of difference throughout. Thus, the genus Clover (Tri- 
foliuin) includes many species, as the White Clover 
(T. repens), the Red Clover ( T. pratense), the Buffalo 
Clover (T. reflexwm), etc., agreeing in floral structure 
and general aspect so obviously that the most hasty 
observer would notice their relationship. So in the 
genus Pinus, no one would hesitate to include the 
White Pine, the Pitch Pine, the Long-leafed Pine 
(P. strobus, P. rigida, and P. palustris), any more than 
we would fail to observe their differences. 

30. Thus individuals are grouped into species, and 
species are associated into genera. These groups con- 
stitute the bases of all the systems of classification in 
use, whether by artificial or natural methods. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 

31. In its earliest stage of life, the plant is an 
embryo sleeping in the seed. It then consists of two 
parts, the radicle or rootlet, and the plumule. Both 
may be seen in the Pea, Bean, or Acorn. Besides the 
embryo, the seed contains also its food in some form, 
provided for its first nourishment. 

32. When placed just beneath the surface of the 
soil, it absorbs moisture, which, with the genial warmth 
of Spring, awakens the embryo, and it begins to feed 
and grow. The radicle protrudes (Pig. 2, r), turns 
downward, seeking the dark damp earth, avoiding the 
air and light, and forms the root or descending axis. 
The plumule, taking the opposite direction (Fig. 3, p), 



16 



INTRODUCTION. 



[14. 



ascends, seeking the air and light, and expanding 
itself to their influence. This constitutes the 
stem or ascending axis, bearing the leaves. 
Thus the acorn germinates, and the Oak en- 
ters upon the second stage of its existence. 

33. At first the ascending axis is merely 
a bud, that is, a growing point clothed with 
and protected by little scales, the rudiments 
of leaves. As the growing point 
advances and its lower scales grad- 
ually expand into leaves, new scales 
successively appear above. Thus 
the axis is always terminated by 
bud. 

34. The terminal bud 
pands into leaves, and 
ascending axis (Fig. 4, p) 
creases in length and diam- 
eter. Besides the terminal 
bud, one is formed in the 
axil of each leaf. If none 
of the buds in the 
axils of the leaves de- 
velop, the plant at 
the end of the grow- 
ing season will pre- 
sent a young oak, as 
Fig. A, but if one should grow, the little tree would 
appear as in Fig. B. 

35. During successive periods of growth the lateral 
buds develop, forming branches and branchlets, and 
season after season the main axis lengthens and in- 
creases in diameter, the branches multiply and enlarge, 





2, the radicle \ 



Acorn (seed of Quercus) germinat- 
ing ; 1, section showing the radicle (? ) 
which is to become the root, and the 
two cotyledons (c) which are to nourish 
descending ; 3 and 4, the radicle, r, de- 



scending, and the plumule (p) ascending. 



THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 



1 



until the full-grown oak in all its beauty and majesty 
stands before us (Fig. C). 

The student is struck with wonder and admiration 
as he watches these stages of growth ; how is it, he 
asks, that the tiny plant which was nestling in the 
acorn has been changed into this gigantic oak ? When 
he comes to study the cells and tissues of which this 





A, A young oak at the end of the first season of growth, the markings on the stem, d, d, are the scars 
left by the fallen leaves ; at each scar there is an undeveloped bud : some of these may grow during the 
next season, and develop into branches. B, A young oak at the end of the first season, one of the lateral 
buds having grown and produced a branch. 

great tree is made up, his amazement will increase as 
he realizes the paucity of material and the magnitude 
of the structure ; the insignificance of the beginning 
and the grandeur of the end. "The economy of causes 
and the prodigality of effects ; the simplicity of laws 
and the complexity of results." 

36. The tree is now complete, possessing the organs 
necessary to discharge the functions of plant growth. 
It has root, rootlets, stem, branches, branchlets, and 



18 



INTRODUCTION. 



leaves. The root fastens it firmly in the ground ; 
the rootlets take up liquids from the soil; the stem, 
branches, and branchlets are furnished with vessels 
and passages through which the fluids find their way 
to the leaves, where, under the influence of air and 










C, Quercus alba. 

sunlight, they are changed and fitted for plant 
food. 

37. The next stage in the plant's life is the produc- 
tion of the flower. To accomplish this, a change takes 
place in the mode of development. Some of the buds, 
instead of extending the axes of the branchlets or 
forming new branchlets, expand their scales, producing 



THE STAGES OF PLAXT LIFE. 



19 



crowded whorls, each succeeding whorl differing from 
the last ; some of the parts possessing great delicacy 




H, young branchlet of Q. alba, with aments, etc. D, a staminate ( $ J flower ; E, the same ; F, a 
pistillate ( $ ) flower with five stigmas ; G, vertical section of the same ; J, branchlet with full-grown 
leaves and mature fruit ; J, section of the acorn showing the two thick cotyledons and embryo at top. 

of organization, and, frequently, marked beauty of 
color. (See Figures D, E, F, G, H, I, J.) 



2 INTRODUCTION. [16. 

38. The next stage is the production of fruit, in 
which flowering is the first step ; the showy parts of 
the flower soon wither and fall away ; the pistil, hav- 
ing been fertilized, is left, and continues to grow" and 
finally matures into the ripe Fruit (Figs. I, J). 

We found the plant slumbering in the Seed ; we 
have followed and watched its behavior through all 
the stages of its Life. 

39. We have seen the seed placed in the damp 
soil, where it absorbed moisture, enlarged, ruptured its 
shell, sent forth a sprout, which began to increase in 
two directions, one part enlarged downwards into the 
earth and formed a root ; the other part grew upwards 
and became a stem. The stem clothed itself with 
leaves, sent forth branches, and adorned itself with 
flowers. These several achievements were succeeded 
by the crowning act of vegetable life, the production of 
mature seed in which a new Plant reposes, in embryo. 



CHAPTER IV. 

TERM OB PERIOD OF PLANT LIFE. 

40. Flowering and fruit-bearing is an exhausting 
process. If it occur within the first or second year of 
the life of the plant, it generally proves fatal. In all 
other cases, it is either immediately preceded or fol- 
lowed by a state of repose. Now^if flowering be pre- 
vented by nipping the, buds, the tender annual may 
become perennial, as in the florist's Tree-mignonette. 
We distinguish plants, as to their term of life, into 
the annual ((D), the biennial (®), and the perennial 
■(U). An annual ((D) herb is a plant whose en- 



16. 17.] TERM OK PERIOD OF PLAXT LIFE. 2 1 

tire life is limited to a single season. It germinates 
from the seed in Spring, attains its growth, blossoms, 
bears fruit, and dies in Autumn ; as the Flax, Corn, 
Morning-glory. 

41. A biennial herb ((D) is a plant which germi- 
nates and vegetates, bearing leaves only the first 
season, blossoms, bears fruit, and dies the second ; as 
the Beet and Turnip. Wheat, Rye, etc., are annual 
plants ; but when sown in Autumn, the sudden frost 
prevents flowering, and they become biennials. 

42. 3fonoca?'pic herbs. — The Century-plant (Agave), the Talipot-palni, etc., are 
so called. They vegetate, bearing leaves only, for many years, accumulating 
materials and strength for one mighty effort in fructification, which being 
accomplished, they die. In some species the term of life depends on climate 
alone. The Castor-bean {Bicinus) is an annual herb in the Northern States, 
a shrub in the Southern, and a tree of large size in its native India. So 
Petunia, annual in our gardens, is' perennial at home (in Brazil). 

43. Perennial plants are such as have an indefinite 
duration of life, usually of many years. They may be 
either herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous perennials, or 
per ejiniaf herbs (21), are plants whose parts are annual 
above ground and perennial below. In other words, 
their roots or subterranean stems live from year to 
year, sending up annually, in Spring, flowering shoots 
which perish after they have ripened their fruit in 
Autumn ; as the Lily, Dandelion, Hop. 

44. Woody perennials usually vegetate several years, 
and attain well-nigh their ordinary stature before flow- 
ering ; thenceforward they fructify annually, resting or 
sleeping in winter. They are known as trees (b), 
shrubs (b), bushes, and undershrubs (b) — distinctions 
founded on size alone. 

45. A shrub (b), is a diminutive tree, limited to 
eighteen or twenty feet in stature, and generally divid- 



22 



INTRODUCTION. 



[17, 18. 



ing into branches at or near the surface of the ground 
(Alder, Quince). If the woody plant be limited to a 
still lower growth, say about the human stature, it is 
called a bush (Snowball, Andromeda). If still smaller, 
it is an undershrub (b) (Whortleberry). 

46. A tree (5) is understood to attain to a height 
many times greater than the human stature, with a 
permanent woody stem, whose lower part, the trunk, 
is unbranched. 

47. As to age, some trees live only a few years, rapidly attaining their 
growth and rapidly decaying, as the Peach ; others have a longevity exceed- 
ing the age of man ; and some species outlive many generations. Age may be 
estimated by the number of wood-circles or rings seen in a cross-section of the 
trunk (§ 408), each ring being (very generally) an annual growth. Instances 
of great longevity are on record. See Class Book of Botany, §§ 99, 100. The 
monarch tree of the world is the Calif ornian Cedar — Sequoia gigantea. One 
which had fallen measured 26 f net in diameter, and 363 in length 1 The 
wood-circles of this specimen are unusually thick, yet count up to 1,330. 
Among those yet standing, are many of even greater dimensions, as beautiful 
in form as they are sublime in height — the growth, probably, of more than 
2,000 years. One of the Sequoias is estimated at 1,500 years ; another of 
these monsters, felled in 1875, had 2,130 rings ; still another was estimated 
by Dr. Gray to be 3,200 years old. One of these monster trees has recently 
been discovered, in Tulare County, California, by an engineer of the Comstock 
mines, that measures more than 56 feet in diameter at a point seven feet 
from the ground. 

48. Trees are again distinguished as deciduous (5) 
and evergreen (h) — the former losing their foliage in 
Autumn, and remaining naked until the following 
Spring ; the latter retaining their leaves and verdure 
throughout all seasons. The Fir tribe (Coniferae) in- 
cludes nearly all the evergreens of the North ; those 
of the South are far more numerous in kind — e.g., 
the Magnolias, the Live-oaks, Holly, Cherry, Palmetto, 
etc. 



PART FIRST. 

STRUCTURAL BOTANY; OR, ORGANOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE FLOWER. 



49. The flower is the immediate agent in the pro- 
duction of the seed with its embryo, and to this end 
its whole structure is designed. Moreover, its superior 
beauty attracts earliest attention, and an intimate 
knowledge of its organism is the first requisite in 
analysis and classification. 

50. The flower may consist of the following mem- 
bers — the floral envelopes and the essential floral or- 
gans. The floral envelopes consist of one or more 
circles or whorls of leaves surrounding the essential 
organs. The outer of these whorls is called the calyx ; 
and the other, if there be any, the corolla. The calyx 
may, therefore, exist without the corolla ; but the 
corolla can not exist without the calyx. 

51. Calyx 'is a Greek word signifying a cup. It is 
applied to the external envelope of the flower, consist- 
ing of a whorl of leaves with their edges distinct or 
united, usually green, but sometimes highly colored. 
The leaves or pieces composing the calyx are called 
sepals. 



24 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [19, 20. 

52. Corolla is a Latin word signifying a little 
crown, applied to the interior envelope of the flower. 
It consists of one or more circles of ' leaves, either dis- 
tinct or united by their edges, usually of some other 
color than green, and of a more delicate texture than 
the calyx. Its leaves are called petals, 

53. Perianth (nep^ around, avOog, flower) is a word 
in common use to designate the floral envelopes as a 
whole, without distinction of calyx and corolla. It is 
used in description, especially when these two envel- 
opes are so similar as not to be readily distinguished, 
as in the Tulip, Lily, and the Endogens generally ; 
also where only one envelope exists, as in Phytolacca, 
Elm, etc. 

54. The essential floral organs stand within the cir- 
cles of the perianth, and are so called because they 
are the immediate instruments in perfecting the seed, 
and thus accomplishing the final purposes of the 
flower. These organs are of two kinds, perfectly dis- 
tinct in position and office — viz., the stamens and the 
pistils. 

55. The stamens are those thread-like organs situ- 
ated just within the perianth and around the pistils. 
Their number varies from one to a hundred or more ; 
but the most common number is five. Collectively 
they are called the androeceum. 

56. The pistils (called also carpels) occupy the 
center of the flower at the absolute terminus of the 
flowering axis. They are sometimes numerous, often 
apparently but one, always destined to bear the seed. 
Collectively they are called the gynceceum. 

57. The torus or receptacle is the axis of the 
flower, situated at the summit of the flower-stalk. It 



20, 21.] 



PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 



25 



commonly appears a flattened or somewhat convex 
disk, whose center corresponds to the apex of the axis. 
On this disk, as on a platform, stand the floral organs 




5, Flower of the Strawberry. 6, Flower of the Fink. 7, Flower of the Lily (Lilium superbum). The 
pupil will point out the parts. 

above described, in four concentric circles. The gynae- 
ceum (pistils) occupies the center ; the androeceum 
encircles it ; the corolla is next without ; and the 
calyx embraces the whole. 



CHAPTER II. 



PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 



58. Such, in general, is the organization of the 
flower. It is simple enough in theory ; and in most 
of the plants with which he meets, the student will 
easily recognize these several organs by name. But, 
in truth, flowers vary in form and fashion to a degree 
almost infinite. Each organ is subject to transforma- 
tions, disguises, and even to entire extinction ; so that 
the real nature of the flower may become an intricate 
and perplexing study. 



2 6 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [21, 22. 

59. As we shall soon see, in all these variations 
there is method. They are never capricious or acci- 
dental, however much they may appear so. Unity in 
diversity is characteristic of Nature in all her depart- 
ments, and eminently so in the flowers ; and the first 
step in the successful study of them is to discover 
that unity — that simple idea of the floral structure in 
which all its diversities harmonize. Before flowers 
were created, that idea or type was conceived; and to 
possess it ourselves is a near approach to communion 
with the Infinite Author of Nature. 

60. The typical flower, one that exemplifies the 
full idea of the floral structure, consists of four differ- 
ent circles of organs, as before described, placed circle 
within circle on the torus, and all having a common 
center. Such a flower must possess these five attri- 
butes — viz.: It must be 

a, Complete ; having the four kinds or sets of 
organs arranged in as many concentric circles. That 
it is perfect, having both kinds of the essential organs, 
is necessarily included under its completeness. 

5, Regular ; having the organs of the same name 
all similar and alike ; that is, all the petals of one 
pattern, all the stamens alike in form, size, position, 
etc. 

c, Symmetrical ; having the same , number of organs 
in each set or circle. 

d, Alternating in respect to the position of fche 
organs. This implies that the several organs of each 
set stand not opposite to, but alternating with the 
organs of the adjacent set; — the petals alternate with 
the sepals and stamens ; the stamens alternate with 
the petals and pistils. 



22, 23.] 



PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 



27 



e, That the organs be distinct, all disconnected and 
free from each other. 

61. This is the Type. But it is seldom fully real- 
ized in the flowers as they actually grow, although the 
tendency toward it is universal Deviations occur in 
every imaginable mode and degree, causing that end- 
less variety in the floral world which we never cease 
to admire. For example, in our pattern flowers (5, 6, 
7), the pistils seem too few in the Pink and Lily, and 
the stamens too many in all of them. 

62. Tlie flower of the Flax (10) combines very nearly all the conditions 
above specified. It is complete, regular, symmetrical. Its organs are alter- 
nate and all separate ; and (disregarding the slight cohesion of the pistils at 
their base) this flower well realizes our type. Admitting two whorls of 
stamens instead of one, we have a good example of our type in Stone-crop 
(Sedum ternatum), a little fleshy herb of our woods. Its flowers are both 
4-parted and 5-parted in the same plant. See also the 12-parted flowers of 
the common Houseleek. 




8, Flower of Crassula lactea, regular, symmetrical, organs distinct. 9, Diagram showing its plan. 
10, Flower of the Scarlet Flax. 11, Diagram of its plan. 

63. The flQwers of Crassula (8), an African genus 
sometimes cultivated, afford unexceptionable examples, 
the sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils each being five 
in number, regularly alternating and perfectly separate. 



28 



STRUCTUKAL BOTANY. 



[23. 



CHAPTER III. 



STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 

64. The true method of studying the flower is 

by comparing it with this type. So shall we be 
able, and ever delighted, to learn the nature of each 
organ in all its disguises of form, and to discern the 
features of the general plan even under its widest 
deviations. The more important of them are included 
under the following heads, which will be considered in 
order : 1 , Variations of the radical number of the 
flower; 2, Deficiencies; 3, Redundancies; 4, Union of 
parts ; 5, Irregularities of development. 

65. The radical number of the flower is that which 
enumerates the parts composing each whorl. Here 
nature seems most inclined to the number five, as in 
Grassula, Flax, Rose, and Strawberry. It varies, how- 
ever, from one to twelve, and is expressed by word or 
sign as follows : di-merous, or 2-parted (^/), tri-merous 




12, Flower of Hippuris, one-parted. 13, Flower of Circaea Lutetiana, ty. 14, Flower of Xyris, fy. 

or 3-parted (^/), penta-merous or 5-parted (^), etc. 
The flowers of Hippuris (12) are 1 -parted, having but 
one stamen and one pistil. Those of Circaea (13) are 
2-parted, having 2 sepals, 2 petals, 2 stamens, etc. 



23, 24.] 



STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 



29 



Those of Xyris (14) are ty, having all the parts in 3s. 
Xyris is one of the Endogens. Trimerous flowers are 
characteristic of this great group of Plants, while pen- 
tamerous flowers commonly distinguish the Exogens. 

66. Deficiencies often occur, rendering the flower 
incomplete. Such flowers lack some one or more en- 
tire sets of organs. When only one of the floral 
envelopes, the calyx, exists, the flower is said to be 
apetalous or monochlamydeous (xXafivc, a cloak), as in 
Elm, Phytolacca. These terms are also loosely applied 
to such plants as Rhubarb, Anemone, Liverwort, where 
the pieces of the perianth are all similar, although in 
two or three whorls. When the perianth is wholly 
wanting, the flower is said to be achlamydeous, or 
naked, as in Lizard-tail (15). 






15, Flower of Saururus (Lizard-tail)— achlamydeous. 16, Flower of Fraxinus (Ash). 17, Flower 
of Salix (Willow), staminate— 18, pistillate. 

67. Imperfect flowers are also of frequent occur- 
rence. They are deficient in respect to the essential 
organs. A sterile or staminate flower (denoted thus $ ) 
has stamens withous pistils. A fertile or pistillate 
flower ( 9 ) has pistils without stamens. Such flowers 
being counterparts of each other, and both necessary 
to the perfection of the seed, mast exist either to- 
gether upon the same plant or upon separate plants 
of the same species. In the former case, the species 



30 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[24, 25. 



is monoecious ( § ), as in Oak ; in the latter case, dioe- 
cious (8 ?), as in Willow. The term diclinous, denot- 




19, Pistillate flower of Balm-of-Gilead. 20, Staminate. 21, Begonia — a, staminate ; 6, pistillate. 

ing either 8 or $ ? without distinction, is in common 
use. 

68. A neutral flower is a perianth or calyx only, 
having neither stamens nor pistils. Such are the ray- 
flowers of many of the Compositae, and of the cymes 
of Hydrangea, High-cranberry, etc., which in cultiva- 
tion may all become neutral, as in the Snow-ball. 

69. Unsymmetrical flowers. — The term symmetry, 
as used in Botany, refers to number only. A flower 
becomes unsymmetrical by the partial development of 
any set or circle in respect to the number of its 
organs. The Mustard family, called the Crucifers, 
afford good examples. 

70. The flowers of Mustard, Cress, etc., are understood to be 4-merous ( 0. 
The sepals are four, petals four, "but the stamens are six and the styles but 
two. The stamens are arranged in two circles, having two of those in the 
outer circle suppressed or reduced to mere glands. Two of the carpels are 
also suppressed (429). In the Mint family and the Figworts one or three of 
the stamens are generally abortive. Here, while the flowers are ^, the sta- 
mens are four in some species and only two in others. The missing stamens, 
however, often appear in the guise of slender processes — the rudiments of 
stamens — proving in an interesting manner the natural tendency to sym- 
metry. 

71. In the ^flowers of Poppy, the sepals are but two; in fy Spring-beauty 
they are but two ; in both cases too few for symmetry. In Larkspur (26) the 
ty flowers have but four petals ; and in Monk's-hood (29), also y^ the petals 



25, 26.] 



STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWEKS. 



31 



are apparently but two, strangely deformed bodies. A careful inspection, 
however, generally reveals the other three, very minute, in their proper 
places, as displayed in the cut. 

72. "Organs opposite" is a condition much less fre- 
quent than "organs alternate," but is highly interest- 
ing, as being sometimes characteristic of whole fami- 
lies. Thus in the Primrose, Thrift, and Buckthorn 
families, the stamens always stand opposite to the 
petals ! 

73. How happens this? Among the Primworts 
this question is solved in the flowers of Lysimachia 




Diagrams. — 22, Flower of Samolus, showing the rudimentary stamens alternating with the peifect. 
23, Flower of a Lahiate plant, showing the r lace of the deficient stamen. 24, Flower of Asarum— three 
sepals, twelve stamens, etc. 25, Flower of Saxifrage — two pistils, ten stamens, etc. 

and Samolus, where we find a circle of five teeth 
(abortive filaments) between the petals and stamens, 
alternating with both sets, thus restoring the lost sym- 
metry. Hence we infer that in such cases generally 
a circle of alternating organs has been either partially 
or wholly suppressed. In the Buckthorn, however, a 
different explanation has been given. 

74. Redundancy. — TJie multiplication of organs is 
exceedingly common, and usually according to a defi- 
nite plan. The increase takes place, as a rule, by cir- 
cles, and consequently by multiples. That is, e. g., the 
stamens of a fy flower, if increased, will be so by 3s ; 
of a fy flower by 5s, etc., — sometimes to the extent of 
twenty such circles. 



32 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[26, 27. 



75. In the Crowfoot, Rose, and other families with numerous stamens, the 
arrangement is in crowded spirals, like the phyllotaxis of the plants with the 
internodes undeveloped. The carpels of the Crowfoot are also generally mul- 
tiplied, yet often, on the contrary, diminished, as in the Pseony. In Rosacese, 
also, the stamens are generally multiplied, while the carpels exist in all con- 
ditions as to number. Thus in Strawberry they are multiplied, in the Apple 
they are regularly five, in Agrimony reduced to two, and in the Cherry to 
one. In Magnolia the ty flowers have three sepals in one circle, six or nine 
petals in two or three circles, numerous stamens and carpels in many circles 
of each. In the jty flowers or Blood-root there are two sepals, eight petals, 
twenty-four stamens, and two carpels. 

76. Chorisis. — In other cases, the organs seem to be increased in number 
by clusters, rather than by circles, as when in the same circle several stamens 
stand in the place of one — e.g., in Squirrel-corn, St. Johnswort, linden. Such 
cases afford wide scope for conjecture. Perhaps each cluster originates by 
division, as the compound from the simple leaf ; or as a tuft of axillary leaves ; 
or thirdly, by a partial union of organs. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ANOMALOUS FLOWERS — CONTINUED. 

77. Appendicular organs consist of spurs, scales, 
crown, glands, etc., and often afford excellent dis- 
tinctive marks. The old term nectary was indiscrim- 




!6, Flower of Delphinium Consolida (common Larkspur), dirplaying s, s, s, s, s, the five sepals — a, the 
upper one spur; c, the corolla of four petals, here united into one and produced into a spur. 27, Flower 
of Impatiens fulva (Touch-me-not). 28, Displaying », s, s, y, the four sepals, y being saccate and spurred ; 
p, p, the two petals, both double, preserving the symmetry. 

inately applied to all such organs, because some of 
them produced honey. 



26-28.] STUDY OF AX03IALOUS FLOWERS. 33 

78. Spurs are singular processes of the flower, tu- 
bular and projecting from behind it. In Columbine 
each petal is thus spurred; — in Violet, one petal only; 
in Larkspur, two petals and a sepal, the spur of the 
latter inclosing that of the former. The curved spur 
of the Jewel-weed belongs to a sepal (2 7, 28). 

79. Scales are attached to the inner side of the 
corolla, usually upon the claw of the petals, as in 
Buttercups, or within the throat of the corolla tube, 
as in the Borrageworts. Similar appendages, when 
enlarged and conspicuous, constitute a crown in 
Catchfly, Corn-cockle, Narcissus. See also the stami- 
na! crown of the Silk-grass (Asclepias). 

80. Glandular bodies are often found upon the re- 
ceptacle in the places of missing stamens or carpels, 
or as abortive organs of some kind. Examples are 
seen in the Crucifers and Grape. In Grass-Parnassus 
the}' are stalked and resemble stamens. 

81. The union of organs in some way occurs in 
almost every flower ; and, more perhaps than any 
other cause, tends to disguise its plan and origin. 
The separate pieces which stood each as the repre- 
sentative of a leaf, now, by a gradual fusion, lose 
themselves in the common mass. Nevertheless, marks 
of this process are always discernible, either in parts 
yet remaining free, or in the seams where the edges 
were conjoined. The floral organs may unite by cohe- 
sion or adhesion. 

82. Cohesion, when the parts of the same whorl are 
joined together ; as the sepals of the Pink, the petals of 
Morning-glory, the stamens of Mallows, the carpels of 
P°PPy- Adhesion, when the parts of different whorls 
are conjoined ; as the stamens with the corolla in 



34 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[27, 28. 



Phlox, with the pistils in Milkweed, Lady's-slipper ; 
or calyx with ovary, in Apple or Wintergreen (Gaul- 
theria). The adjective free is used in a sense opposite 
to adhesion, implying that the organ is inserted on (or 
grows out of) the receptacle, and otherwise separated 
from any other kind of organ. The adjective distinct 
is opposed to cohesion, implying that like organs are 
separate from each other. More of this in another 
chapter. 




29, Flower of Aconitum Napellus displayed; s, s, s, s, $, the five sepals, the upper one hooded; p, p, p, 
the five petals, of which the two upper are nectaries covered hy the hood, and the three lower very minute. 
30, Flower of Catalpa, 2-lipped, 5-lobed. 31, Corolla laid open, showing the two perfect stamens and the 
three rudimentary. 

83. Irregular development. — Our typical flower is 
regular ; and observation proves that all flowers are 
actually alike regular in the early bud. Those in- 
equalities or " one-sided" forms, therefore, which char- 
acterize certain flowers, are occasioned by subsequent 
irregular growth from a regular type. The irregu- 
larity of flowers occurs in a thousand ways and 
modes ; — in the unequal size of like organs ; in their 
dissimilar forms and positions; in their unequal cohe- 
sions, and in their partial suppressions. So in the 
Violet (50), Monk's-hood (29), Catalpa (30), the Labi- 
ates (69), the Pea tribe (59), etc. 






28, 29.] 



STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 



35 



84. The torus, or receptacle, is sometimes strangely 
modified. In the little Myosurus (32), in some But- 
tercups, and in the Tulip-tree we find a lengthened or 
spindle-shaped torus — lengthened according to the 




32, Flower (magnified) of Myosurus ; a vertical section showing its elongated torus, etc. 33, The 
same, natural size. 34, Flower of Isopyrum biternatum; vertical section, showing the convex or globular 
torus, etc. 35. Flower of Rose, lowing its excavated torus. 

nature of a branch (§ 35), and all covered with the 
multiplied pistils. On the contrary, we have in the 
Rose (35) and Lady's-mantle (38), an excavated torus, 
within which the carpels are held, while the other 
organs are borne upon its elevated rim. 





36, Paeonia Moutan, showing its very large disk (d) sheathing the ovaries (p). 37, Pistil of the Lemon, 
with its base surrounded by the disk, d. 38, Section of flower of Alchemilla, showing its single simple 
pistil, large disk, and excavated torus. 

85. The disk is a portion of the receptacle raised 
into a rim somewhere in the midst of the whorls. It 
is found between the ovary and stamens in Paeony 



36 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [29-31. 

and Buckthorn. It bears the stamens in Maple and 
Mignonette, and crowns the ovary in the Umbelliferae. 

86. Combined deviations are quite frequent, and sometimes obscure the 
typical character of the flower to such a degree as to require close observa- 
tion in tracing it out. The study of such cases is full of both amusement 
and improvement. For example, the ty Poppy has suppression in the calyx, 
multiplication in the stamens and carpels, and in the latter cohesion also. 
The fy Sage has cohesion and irregularity in the calyx, every kind of irregu- 
larity in the corolla, suppression and irregularity in the stamens, suppression 
and cohesion in the pistils. The ty Cypripedium is perfectly symmetrical, yet 
has irregular cohesion in the calyx, great inequality in the petals, cohesion, 
adhesion, and metamorphosis in the stamens, and cohesion in the carpels. 

(Ln. this way let the pupil analyze the deviations in the flower of G-era- 
nium, Hollyhock, Moth-mullein, Larkspur, Sweetbrier, Touch-me-not, Petunia, 
Snapdragon, Violet, Polygala, Squirrel-corn, Orchis, Henbit, Monk's-hood, 
Calceolaria, etc.) 



CHAPTER V. ' 

THE FLORAL ENVELOPES, OR PERIANTH. 

87. In our idea of the typical flower, the perianth 
consists of two whorls of expanded floral leaves encir- 
cling and protecting the more delicate essential organs 
in their midst. As a rule, the outer circle, calyx, is 
green and far less conspicuous than the inner circle 
of highly colored leaves — the corolla. But there are 
many exceptions to this rule. Strictly speaking, the 
calyx and corolla are in no way distinguishable except 
by position. The outer circle is the calyx, whatever 
be its form or color ; and the inner, if there be more 
than one, is the corolla. 

88. Both blade and petiole are distinguishable in 
the floral leaves, especially in the petals. The blade, 
or expanded part, is here called limb, or lamina ; the 
petiolar part, when narrowed into a stalk, is called the 
claw. In form, or outline, there is a general resem- 



30, 31.] 



THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. 



37 



blance between the limb and the leaf. It is ovate, 
oval, lanceolate, obcordate, orbicular, etc. In margin 
it is generally entire. (See § 308.) 

89. Some peculiar forms, however, should be noticed, 
as the bilobate petal of the Chickweed (44), the pin- 
natifid petal of Miterwort (43), the inflected petal of 
the Umbelliferse (42), the fan-shaped petal of Pink, the 
fringed (fimbriate) petal of Campion (Silene stellata) 
(40), the hooded sepal of Napellus (29), the saccate 




Forms of petals. — 39, Buttercup, showing the scale at base. 40, Mignonette, fringed at top. 41, Silene 
stellata, fringed and unguiculate. 42, Flower of Osmorhiza longistylis, petals inflected. 43, Flower ot 
Mitella diphylla, petals pectinate-pinnatifid. 44, Petal of Cerastium nutans, 2-cleft. 

petal of Calceolaria, Cypripedium (71). The limb is, 
moreover, often distorted into a true nectary, spurred 
(see § 78), or otherwise deformed, as in . Napellus, 
Coptis, etc. 

90. We have seen that the floral organs are often 
in various ways united. A calyx with its sepals united 
into a tube or cup was formerly said to be monosepal- 
ous, and a similar corolla was called monopetalous ; 
gammepalous and gamopetalous are now substituted 
for those words. Polysepalous is applied to a calyx 
with distinct sepals, a corolla with separate petals is 
polypetalous. 

Gamosepalous and gamopetalous have in Germany given place to the more 
appropriate words synsepalous and sympetalous. 

Polysepalous and polypetalous have also been superseded by the more accurate 
terms aposepalous and apopetalous. 



38 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[31, 32. 



91. The gamosepalous calyx, or gamopetalous co- 
rolla, although thus compounded of several pieces, is 
usually described as a simple organ, wheel-shaped, cup- 
shaped, tubular, according to the degree of cohesion. 
The lower part of it, formed by the united claws, 
whether long or short, is the tube; the upper part, 
composed of the confluent laminae, is the border, or 
limb; the opening of the tube above is the throat. 

92. The border is either lobed, toothed, crenate, 
etc., by the distinct ends of the pieces composing it, 
as in the calyx of Pink, the calyx and corolla of 
Primula, Phlox, and Bellwort, or it may become, by a 
complete lateral cohesion, entire, as in the Morning- 
glory. Here the compound nature of the organ is 
shown by the seams alone. 

93. A terminal cohesion, where summit as well as 
sides are joined, forming a cap rather than cup, rarely 
occurs, as in the calyx of the garden Eschscholtzia and 
the corolla of the Grape. 




45, Flower of Saponaria (Bouncing Bet); petals and claws quite distinct. 46, Phlox; claws united, 
with lamina distinct. 47, Spigelia (Pink -root;, petals still further united. 48, Quamoclit coccinea ; petals 
united throughout. 

94. The modes of adhesion are various and im- 
portant, furnishing some of the most valuable dis- 



32, 33.] 



THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. 



39 



tinctive characters. An organ is said to be adherent 
when it is conjoined with some dissimilar organ, as 
stamen with pistil. All the organs of our typical 
flower are described as free. 

95. The term hypogynous (vndb, under, yvvq^ the 
pistil) is an adjective in frequent use, denoting that 





the organs are inserted into the torus under, or at the 
base of the ovary or pistil. Organs so situated are, of 
course, in the normal condition and free, there being 
no adhesions. Observe and explain the sections of 
Jeffersonia and Violet (49, 50). 

96. Perigynous {-epi, around) is a term applicable 
to the stamens and pet- 
als only, and implies that ^ 
they are (apparently) in- \ 
serted on the calyx or 
corolla around the free 
ovary. In Phlox, the 
stamens are perigynous 
on the corolla-tube. In 
Cherry and Plum, the 
petals and stamens are perigynous on the calyx-tube. 
(See 51.) 

97. Epigynous (em } upon) denotes that the organs 




40 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[33, 34. 



are inserted (apparently) upon the ovary, as appears 
in Apple, Pear, Caraway, Sunflower. (See cuts 42, 
51.) The common phrases "calyx superior," " ovary 
inferior," have the same signification as " calyx epigy- 
nous," all implying the apparent insertion of the 
organs upon or above the ovary. In this condition 






52, Ribes aureum and (54) Fuchsia gracilis ; ovaiy inferior or adherent, stamens and petals epigynous 
{above the adherent ovary). 53, Saxifraga Virginiensis; ovary half-superior. 

all the organs, or at least the calyx, are blended with 
the ovary to its top. Hence the phrases " ovary adher- 
ent," or " calyx adherent," have also the same mean- 
ing, and are preferable, because in accordance with the 
fact. (Explain the sections of Golden Currant and 
Ear-drop — 52, 54.) 

98. Calyx inferior or free, ovary superior or free, 
are all phrases of the same import as calyx hypogy- 
nous. Between the two conditions, calyx superior and 
calyx inferior, there are numerous gradations, of which 
one only is defined, to wit, calyx half-superior, as ex- 
emplified in the Mock-orange and Saxifrage (53). 



34, 35.] 



FORMS OF THE PEBIANTH. 



41 



CHAPTER VI. 

FORMS OF THE PEKIAXTH. 

99. The innumerable forms of the perianth, whether 
calyx or corolla, or both, are first to be distinguished 
as polypetalous or gamopetalous, and secondly, as 
regular or irregular. The P0LYPETAL0us-re<7^Zar forms 
are typified by the four figures below, and described 
in the following paragraphs. 




Forms of corollas.— 55, Cheiranlhus (Stock). 56. Sileiie regia (Scarlet Catchfly). 57, Pyrus coronata. 
5S, Amaryllis (Atamasco Lily). 

100. First, Cruciform {cruris, of a cross) or cross- 
shaped corollas consist of four long-clawed petals, 
placed at right angles to each other, as in Mustard, 
Wall-flower ,(55). 2d, Caryophyllaceous or pink-like 
corollas consist of five petals with long, erect claws, 
and spreading laminae; as in the Pink (56). 3d, 
Rosaceous or rose-like corollas are composed of five 
short-clawed open petals; as in the Rose (Fig. 57). 
4th, Liliaceous flowers, like the Lilies, consist of a 



42 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[35. 



six-leaved perianth ; each leaf gradually spreading so 
as to resemble, as a whole, the funnel-form (58). 

101. Polypetalous-irregular forms (59, 71) may gen- 
erally be referred to these two types — the papiliona- 
ceous and the orchidaceous. The Papilionaceous (pa- 
pilio, butterfly) corolla or flower may consist of five 
dissimilar petals, designated thus : the upper, largest, 
and exterior petal is the banner (vexillum) ; the two 
lateral, half-exterior, are the wings (alee) ; the two 
lower, interior petals, often united at their lower mar- 
gin, are the keel (carina). The flowers of the Pea, 




59, Papilionaceous flower of the Pea, 60, Displayed: v, the vexillum; a, a, the 
61, Section of flower of Dicentra Cucullaria. 



c, c, the carina. 



Locust, Clover, and of the great family of the Legu- 
minosse in general are examples. The Orchidaceous 
is a form of the perianth peculiar to the Orchis, and 
to that large and singular tribe in general. It is a 
6 -parted double perianth, very irregular, characterized 
chiefly by its lip, which is the upper petal (lower by 
the twisting of the ovary) enlarged and variously 
deformed. 

102. Gamopetalous-regular perianths (62-6 7) may 
include mainly the following forms, although some of 
them may become irregular. First, Rotate, wheel- 
shaped, or star-shaped, is a form with tube very short, 



35, 36.] 



FORMS OF THE PERIANTH. 



43 



if any, and a flat, spreading border ; as the calyx of 
Chickweed, corolla of Trientalis, Elder. It is some- 
times a little irregular, as in Mullein. 2d, Cup-shaped, 
with pieces cohering into a concave border, as in the 
calyx of Mallows, corolla of Kalmia, etc. 3d, Cam- 
panulate, or bell-shaped ; when the tube widens ab- 
ruptly at base and gradually in the border, as in 




Forms of co olios. — 62, Campanula Americana; rotate. 63, Campanula divaricata. 64, Andromeda; 
nrceolate. 65, Convolvulus (Morning-glory). 66, Petunia. 67, Lonicera sempervirens (Honeysuckle). 

68, Dandelion; ligulate corolla (c), 5-toothed; a, five anthers united into a tube around s, the style. 

69, Synandra grandiflora, ringent, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed. 70, Linaria (yellow Snapdragon), per- 
sonate. 71, Cypripedmm acaule, orchidaceous. 



the Harebell, Canterbury-bell. 4th, Urceolate, urn- 
shaped ; an oblong or globular corolla with a narrow 
opening, as , the Whortleberry, Heath. 5th, Funnel- 
form (infundibuliform), narrow-tubular below, gradu- 
ally enlarging to the border, as Morning-glory. 6th, 
Salver-form (hypocrateriform), the tube ending ab- 
ruptly in a horizontal border, as in Phlox, Petunia, 
both of which are slightly irregular. 7th, Tubular, a 



44 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [36, 37. 

cylindraceous form spreading little or none at the bor- 
der ; as the calyx of the Pink, corolla of the Honey- 
suckle. It is often a little curved. Tubular flowers 
are common in the Compositae, as the Thistle, Sun- 
flower, when they are often associated with the next 
form, the ligulate. 

103. Gamopetalous - irregular perianths may be 
either ligulate or labiate. The ligulate corolla (ligula, 
tongue) is formed as if by splitting a tubular corolla 
on one side. The notches at the end plainly indicate 
the number of united petals composing it, as also do 
the parallel longitudinal seams. (See Figs. 68, 69.) 
The labiate, bilabiate or lip-shaped, resembling the 
mouth of some animal, is a very common form, result- 
ing from the unequal union of the parts, accompanied 
with other irregularities. In the labiate corolla three 
petals unite more or less to form the lower lip, and 
two to form the upper. In the calyx, when bilabiate, 
this rule is reversed, according to the law of alterna- 
tion of organs ; two sepals are united in the lower lip 
and three in the upper, as seen in the Sage and the 
Labiate Order generally. Labiate flowers are said to 
be galeate or helmeted when the upper lip is concave, 
as in Catmint; ringent or gaping when the throat or 
mouth is wide open (69) ; personate or masked when 
the throat is closed as with a palate, like the Snap- 
dragon (70). 

104. Certain reduced forms of the perianth should 
be noticed in this place. The Pappus (ndTrnog, grand- 
father, alluding to his gray hairs) is the hair-like calyx 
of the florets of the Compositse, and other kindred 
Orders. The florets of this Order are collected into 
heads so compactly that the calyxes have not room 



37, 38.] 



FORMS OF THE PERIANTH. 



45 



for expansion in the ordinary way. The pappus is 
commonly persistent, and often increases as the fruit 
matures, forming a feathery sail to waft away the 
seed through the air, as in the Dandelion and Thistle. 
It varies greatly in form and size, as seen in the cuts ; 
sometimes consisting of scales, sometimes of hairs, 
again of feathers or bristles. Sometimes it is mounted 
on a stipe, which is the beak of the fruit. 





Cypsela (incorrectly called akenium) of the Compositse, with various forms of pappus. 72, Ecripta 
procumbens, no pappus. 73, Ambrosia trifida. 74, Helianthus grosse-serratus, pappus 2-awned. 75. 
Ageratum conizoides, pappus of five scales. 76, Mulgedium, capillary pappus— cypsela slightly rostrate. 
77, Lactuca elongata, rostrate cypsela. 

105. Again : the calyx, or the limb of the calyx, is 
reduced to a mere rim, as seen in the Umbelliferae. 
In the Amentaceous. Orders, the whole perianth di- 
minishes to a shallow cup, as in the Poplar and Wil- 
low, or altogether disappears, as in the Birch, Ash, 
and Lizard-tail (15, 16). 

106. Setae, meaning bristles in general, is a term 
specifically used to denote the reduced perianth of the 
sedges. In the Bog-rush (Scirpus) there is, outside the 
stamens, a circle of six setae, representing a 6-leaved 
perianth (78). In the Cotton-grass (Eriophorum) the 
setae are multiplied and persistent on the fruit, becom- 
ing long and cotton-like. 

107. Perigynium is the name given to the urceo- 
late perianth of Carex, investing the ovary, but allow- 
ing the style to issue at its summit. It is composed 



46 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[38, 39. 



en- 



of two united sepals, as indicated by the two teeth at 
the top (79). 

108. Glumes and pales represent the floral 
velopes, or rather the involucre 
of the Grasses (436). Their al- 
ternating arrangement clearly 
distinguishes them from a peri- 
anth. 

109. The duration of the 
calyx and corolla varies widely, 
and is marked by certain gen- 
eral terms. It is caducous 
when it falls off immediately, 
as the calyx of Poppy, co- 
rolla of Grape ; deciduous 
when it falls with the stamens, 
as in most plants ; and per- 
sistent, if it remain until the fruit ripens, as the calyx 
of Apple. If it continue to grow after flowering, it is 
accrescent ; and if it wither without falling off, it is 
marescent. 







78, Flower of Scirpus lacustris, magni- 
fied; consisting of six setae, three stamens, 
three pistils united, except the stigmas. 
79, Flower of Carex rivularis q , with g, 
its glume, p, its hottle-shaped perigynium, 
2-toothed at top, enveloping the triple 
ovary ; stigmas, three. 



CHAPTER VII. 



OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. — THE STAMENS. 

110. Within the safe enclosure of the floral envel- 
opes stand the essential organs — the stamens and pis- 
tils — clearly distinguishable from the perianth by their 
more slight and delicate forms, and from each other by 
various marks. In the complete flower the andrceceum 
next succeeds the corolla in the order of position, 
being the third set, counting from the calyx. 



39, 40.] 



THE ESSENTIAL OKGANS. 



47 



111. A perfect stamen consists of two parts — the 
filament, corresponding with the petiole of the typical 
leaf; and the anther, answering to the blade. Within 
the cells of the anther the pollen is produced, a sub- 
stance essential to the fertility of the flower. Hence 
the anther alone is the essential part of the stamen. 




10, Andrcecium and gyncecium of Frankenia (after Peyer). 81, Stamen (adnate) of Morning-glory. 
82, Same enlarged, with pollen grains discharged ; /, filament ; a, a. anther, 2-lobed ; c, top of the con- 
nectile. 83. Kanunculus. 84, Same, cut transversely. 85, Iris, cut transversely (extrorse). S6, Ama- 
ryllis, versatile. 87, Larkspur, innate. 88, Same, cut. 

112. The filament {filam, a thread) is the stalk sup- 
porting the anther at or near its top. It is ordinarily 
slender, yet sustaining itself with the anther in posi- 
tion. Sometimes it is capillary, and pendulous with 
its weight, as in the Grasses, 

113. The anther is regularly an oblong body at the 
summit of the filament, composed of two hollow par- 
allel lobes joined to each other and to the filament by 
the connectile. In front of the connectile, looking 
toward the pistil, there is usually a furrow ; on its 
back a ridge, and on the face of each lobe a seam, 
the usual place of dehiscence or opening, all running 
parallel with the filament and connectile. 

114. Tlie stamen, as thus described, may be considered regular or typical 
in form, and is well exemplified in that of the Buttercup (Fig. 83). But the 
variations of structure are as remarkable here as in other organs, depending 
on such circumstances as ; 1st, The attachment of filament to anther. This 



48 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[40. 



may occur in three ways. The anther is said to be innate when it stands cen- 
trally erect on the top of the filament ; adnate when it seems attached to one 
side of the filament ; versatile when connected to the top of the filament by a 
single point in the back. 2d, The modes of Dehiscence, or opening, are also 
three — viz., valvular, where the seam opens vertically its whole length, which 
is the usual way; porous, where the cells open by a chink or pore, usually at 
the top, as in Rhododendron and Potato ; opercular, when by a lid opening up- 
ward, as in Sassafras, Berberis (92). 3d, The facing of the anther is also an 
important character. It is introrse when the lines of dehiscence look toward 
the pistil, as in Violet ; extrorse when they look outward toward the corolla, as 
in Iris. 4th, The connectile is usually a mere prolongation of the filament, ter- 
minating, not at the base, but at the top of the anther. If it fall short, the 
anther will be emarginate. Sometimes it outruns the anther, and tips it with a 
terminal appendage of some sort, as in Violet, Oleander, and Paris. Again, 
its base may be dilated into spurs, as in two of the stamens of Violet. 5th, If 
the connectile be laterally dilated, as we see gradually done in the various 
species of the Labiate Order, the lobes of the anther will be separated, form- 
ing two dimidiate (halved) anthers on one filament, as in Sage and Brunella. 
Such are, of course, 1-celled (96). 
V 




Peculiar forms of stamens. — 89, Pyrola rotuudifolia ; p, dehiscence by pores at top. 90, Vaccinium 
uliginosuni ; p, dehiscence. 91, Berberis aquifolium, anthers opening (92) by valves upward. 93, Anther 
of Violet, introrse, with an appendage at top. 94, Oleander, sagittate, appendaged. 95, Catalpa, lobes of 
anther separated. 95, Sage, lobes of anther widely separated, on stipes ; 6, barren lobe without pollen. 
97, Malva, anther 1-celled. 98, Ephedra ^after Peyer), anther 4-celled. 



115. The cells of the anthers are at first commonly 
four, all parallel, becoming two only at maturity. In 
some plants the four are retained, as in the anthers of 
Ephedra (98). In others, as Mallows, all the cells 
coalesce into one (9 7). 

116. Appendages of many kinds distinguish the stamens of different spe- 
cies. In the Ericaceae there are horns, spurs, tails, queues, etc. In Onions and 
G-arlic, the filament is 2 or 3 forked, bearing the anther on one of the tips. 
Sometimes a pair of appendages appear at base, as if stipulate. It is often 
conspicuously clothed with hairs, as in Tradescantia. (See 89-94.) 

117. Slaminodia, or sterile filaments with abortive anthers or none, occur 
singly in many of the Mgworts and Labiates, or in entire whorls next within 
the petals, alternating with them, as in Loose-strife. The curious fringes of 
the Passion-flower are regarded as composed of staminodia (113). 



41.1 



THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 



49 



118. The number of the stamens is said to be defi- 
nite when not exceeding twenty, as is sometimes 
definitely expressed by such terms as follow, com- 
pounded of the Greek numerals — viz., monandrous, 







Essential organs. — 99, Rhododendron, five stamens («), one pistil (_p), oblique or slightly irregular. 100, 
Flower of JSsculus (Buckeye), regular, 5-toothed calyx (c), very irregular 4-petalled corolla, seven stamens 
unequal, one style (s). 101, Flower of Hydrastis ; s, sepals deciduous. 

having one stamen to each flower ; diandrous, with 
two stamens ; petandrous, with five stamens. If the 
number exceeds twenty, it is said to be indefinite 
(denoted thus, oo) or polyandrous. 




102. Stamens (diadelphous) of a Leguminous plant. 103, Stamens isyngenesious) of a Composite ; /, 
filaments distinct ; a, anthers united ; », stigmas revolute, etc. 104, Tetradynamous stamens of a Crucifer. 

105, Gynandrous column of Cypripedium ; o, ovary ; r, torus ; 6-, sterile stamen ; a, twopollinia ; c, stigma. 

106, Didynamous stamens of Lophospermum. 



119. The position or insertion of the stamens (§ 55) 
may be more definitely stated here as hypogynous, on 



50 STRUCTURAL BOTAKY. [41, 42. 

the receptacle below the ovaries; perigynous, on the 
calyx around the ovary ; epipetalous, on the corolla, as 
in Phlox ; epigynous, on the ovary at its summit, and 
gynandrous (yvvrj, pistil, dv6peg J stamens) on the pistil, 
that is, when the stamens are adherent to the style, 
as in Orchis. Inequality in length is definitely marked 
in two cases, as tetradynamous (rcTpag, four, dvvafitg, 
power) when the stamens are six, whereof four are 
longer than the other two, as in all the Crucifers ; 
didynamous, where the stamens are four, two of them 
longer than the other two, as in all the Labiates (104, 
106). 

120. Cohesion is as frequent with stamens as with 
petals. They are monadelphous (adeX^og, a brother) 
when they are all united, as in Mallow, into one set 
or brotherhood by the filaments ; diadelphous in two 
sets, whether equal or unequal, as in Pea, Squirrel- 
corn ; polyadelphous, many sets, as in St. Johnswort ; 
and syngenesious, when they are united by their an- 
thers, as in the Compositae. Finally, the absence of 
the stamens altogether, whether by abortion, as in the 

9 flowers of Veratrum, or by suppression, as in Oak, 
occurs in various modes, rendering the plant monoe- 
cious (5), dioecious ($ ?), or polygamous (8 £ 9), as 
already explained (§ 67). 

121. The pollen is in appearance a small, yellow 
dust, contained in the cells of the anther. When 
viewed with the microscope, it appears as grains of 
various forms, usually spheroidal or oval, sometimes 
triangular or polyhedral, but always of the same form 
and appearance in the same species. Externally they 
are curiously, and often elegantly figured with stripes, 
bands, dots, checks, etc. Each grain of pollen is a 



42, 43.] 



THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 



51 



membranous cell or sac containing a fluid. Its coat is 
double — the outer is more thick and firm, exhibiting 




Pollen grains.— 107, Pinus larico. 108, Basella rubra. 109, Ranunculus repens. 110, Scolymus grandi- 
florus. Ill, Passiflora incarnata. 

one or more breaks where the inner coat, which is 
very thin and expansible, is uncovered. In the . fluid 
are suspended mol- 
ecules of inconceiv- 
able minuteness, 
said to possess a 
tremulous motion. 
W h e n the mem- 
brane is exposed to 
moisture, it swells 
and bursts, dis- 
charging its con- 
tents. 

122. In the Or- 

112, Section of the Passion-flower (Passiflora coerulea); &, bracts 
pblfl^ fl"nrl ^ilkwPPfl °^ the involucre ; s, sepals ; p, petals ; a, a, staminodia or sterile 

filaments ; c, stipe ; o, ovary ; d, stamens ; t, stigmas. 

tribe, the pollen 

grains do not separate as into a dust or powder, but 
all cohere into masses called pollinia, accompanied by 
a viscid fluid. 




5 2 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [43, 44. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. — THE PISTILS. 

123. The Gynaeceum occupies the center of the 
flower, at the termination of the axis. It consists 
regularly of a circle of distinct pistils (§ 60), sym- 
metrical in number with the other circles. It is sub- 
ject to great variation. The pistil may be distinct 
and simple, as in Columbine, or coherent in various 
degrees into a compound body, as in St. Johnswort. 
Also instead of being free and superior, as it regularly 
should be, it may adhere to the other circles, as 
already explained (§ 97), and become inferior ; that 
is, apparently placed below the flower, as in the Cur- 
rant (52). 

124. The number of the pistils is by no means 
confined to the radical of the flower. They may be 
increased by multiples, becoming a spiral on a length- 
ened receptacle, as in Tulip-tree, or still remaining a 
circle, as in Poppy. On the other hand, they may be 
reduced in number often to one, as in Cherry and Pea. 
Certain terms are employed to denote the number of 
pistils in the flower, such as monogynous, with one 
pistil ; trigynous, with three ; polygynous, with many, 
etc. 

125. The simple pistil may usually be known from 
the compound, by its one-sided forms — having two 
sides similar and two dissimilar. If the pistils appear 
distinct, they are all simple, never being united into 
more than one set, as the stamens often are. The 



44, 45.] 



THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 



53 



parts of a simple pistil are three — the ovary (o, 113) 
at base, the stigma (s) at the summit, and the style 
(sty) intervening. Like the filament, the style is not 
essential ; and when it is wanting, the stigma 
is sessile upon the ovary, as in Anemone (116). 
In order to understand the relation of these 
parts, we must needs first study — 

126. The morphology of the pistil. — As 




113 






116 



113, Pistil of Tobacco. 114, Pistil, stamens, and calyx of Azalea. 115, Trillium — stigmas d> and anthers 
(s) nearly sessile. 116, Pistils of Rue Anemone >A. tTialidroides) — stigmas sessile. 

before stated, the pistil consists of a modified leaf 
called a carpel (ftap-bc, fruit), or carpellary leaf. This 
leaf is folded together toward the axis, so that the 
upper surface becomes the inner, while the lower be- 
comes the outer surface of the ovary. By this arrange- 
ment two sutures or seams will be formed — the dorsal, 
at the back, by the midvein ; the ventral, in front, by 
the joined margins of the leaf. This view of the 
pistil is remarkably confirmed and illustrated by the 
flowers of the Double Cherry (12 4, 12 5), where the 
pistil may be seen in every degree of transition, re- 
verting toward the form of a leaf. This carpellary 
leaf stands in the place of the pistil, having the edges 
infolded toward each other, the midvein prolonged and 
dilated at the apex, as shown in 125. 



54 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



f45, 46. 



12 7. The placentae are usually prominent lines or 
ridges extending along the ventral suture within the 
cell of the ovary, and bearing the ovules. They are 
developed at each of the two edges of the carpellary 
leaf, and are consequently closely parallel when those 
edges are united, forming one double placenta in the 
cell of each ovary. 

128. The simple carpel, with all its parts, is completely exemplified in the 
Pea-pod. When this is laid open at the ventral suture, the leaf form becomes 
manifest, with the peas (ovules) arranged in an alternate order along each 
margin, so as to form but one row when the pod is closed. In the pod of 
Columbine (127), the ovules form two distinct rows, in the simple Plum car- 
pel, each margin bears a single ovule ; and in the one-ovuled Cherry, only one 
of the margins is fruitful. 




117, Simple pistil of Strawberry, the style lateral. 118, Simple pistil of Crowfoot, cut to show the 
ovule. 119, Simple pistil of the Cherry. 120, Vertical section showing the ovule (o), style (s), stigma (a). 
121, Cross-section of the same. 122, Compound pistil of Spring-beauty. 123, Cross-section of the same, 
showing the three cells of the ovary. 121, Expanded carpellary leaf of the Double Cherry. 125, The same 
partly folded, as if to form a pistil. 

129. The stigma is the glandular orifice of the 
ovary, communicating with it either directly or 
through the tubiform style. It is usually globular 
and terminal, often linear and lateral, but subject to 
great variations in form. It is sometimes double or 
halved, or 2-lobed, even when belonging to a single 
carpel or to a simple style, as in Linden, where these 
carpels are surmounted by three pairs of stigmas. 

130. The compound pistil consists of the united 
circle of pistils, just as the monopetalous corolla con- 



46.] 



THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 



55 



sists of the united circle of petals. The union occurs 
in every degree, commencing at the base of the ovary 
and proceeding upward. Thus in Columbine, we see 
the carpels (pistils) distinct ; in early Saxifrage, coher- 
ing just at base ; in Pink, as far as the top of the 
ovaries, with styles distinct ; in Spring-beauty, to the 
top of the styles, with stigmas distinct ; and in Rho- 
dodendron, the union is complete throughout. 



IfQA 




Ik J 180 

127 H28 129 

126, Ovary (follicle) of Larkspur, composed of a single carpellary leaf. 127, Ovaries of the Columbine, 
five, contiguous but distinct. 128, Compound ovary of Hypericum, of carpels united below with distinct 
styles. 129, Ovary of another Hypericum of three carpels completely united. 130, Ovary of Flax; carpels 
five, united below, distinct above. 131, Dianthus (Pink). 132, Saxifraga. 

131. To determine the number of carpels in a com- 
pound ovary is an important and sometimes difficult 
matter. It maybe known: 1st, By the number of the 
styles; or, 2d, By the number of the free stigmas (re- 
membering that these organs are liable to be halved 
— § 129) ; or, 3d, By the lobes, angles, or seams of the 
ovary ; or, 4th, By the cells ; or, 5th, By the placentae. 
But in Dodecatheon, etc., all these indications fail, so 
perfect is th£ union, and we are left to decide from 
analogy alone. 

132. The student will notice two very diverse 
modes of cohesion in the carpels of the compound 
ovary. First and regularly, the carpels may each be 
closed, as when simple, and joined by their sides and 



56 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[46, 47 



fronts; as in St. Johnswort (129) and Lily (171). In 
this case, he may prove the following propositions. 
1st. The compound ovary will have as many cells as 
carpels. 2d. The partitions between the cells will be 
double, and alternate with the stigmas. 3d. A parti- 
tion dividing the cell of a single carpel must be a 
false one; as occurs in Flax (136). 4th. The Pla- 
centae, as well as the ventral suture, will be axial. 

133. Again: the carpels may each be opened and 
conjoined by their edges, as are the petals of a gamo- 
petalous corolla. So it is in the ovary of Violet (137) 
and Rock-rose (139). In this case, 1st. There will be 
no partition (unless a false one, as in the Crucifers), 
and but one cell ; 2d. The Placentae will be parietal, 
i. e.j on the wall of the cell (paries, a wall). 



140 




123, Samolus Valerandi, section of flower showing the free axial placenta. 134, Ovary of Scrophula- 
riaceae. 135, Ovary of Tulip. 136, Cross-section of ovary of Flax, 5-celled, falsely 10-celled. 137, Ovary 
of Violet, 1-celled. 138, Ovary of Fuchsia, 4-celled. 139, Ovary of Rock-rose, 1-celled, 5-carpelled. 
140, Gentianaceae, 2-valved, 1-celled. 

134. Between the two conditions of axial (or central) and parietal placenta, 
we find all degrees of transition, as illustrated in the different species of St. 
Johnswort and in Poppy, where the inflected margins of the carpels carry the 
placentae inward, well-nigh to the axis. Moreover, the placentae are not al- 
ways mere marginal lines, but often wide spaces covering large portions of 
the walls of the cell, as in Poppy and Water-lily ; in other cases, as Datura 
(168), they become large and fleshy, nearly filling the cell. 

135. A free axial placenta, without partitions, occurs 
in some compound one-celled ovaries, as in the Pink 



47, 48.] 



THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 



57 



and Primrose orders (133). This anomaly is explained 
in two ways — first, by the obliteration of the early- 
formed partitions, as is actually seen to occur in the 
Pinks ; secondly, by supposing the placenta to be, at 
least in some cases, an axial rather than a marginal 
growth — that is, to grow from the point of the axis 
rather than from the margin of the carpellary leaf, for 
in Primrose no partitions ever appear. 

136. A few peculiar forms of the style and stigma are worthy of note in 
our narrow limits, as the lateral style of Strawberry; the basilar style of the 
Labiatse and Borrageworts ; the branching style of Phyllanthus, one of the 
Euphorbiacese ; also the globular stigma of AEirabilis; the linear stigma of 
Mediola ; the feathery stigma of Grasses ; the filiform stigma of Indian corn ; 
the lateral stigma of Aster; the petaloid stigmas of Iris; the capitate and 
perforated stigma of "Violet (141-149). 




Pistils.— 141, Symphytum, basilar style, ovary 4-parted. 142, Flower of Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae), 
branching styles. 143, Mirabilis Jalapa, globular stigma. 144, Flower of Luzula, stigmas linear. 145, 
Feathery stigmas of a Grass. 146, Stigmas of Aster. 147, Rumex. 148, Poppy. 149, Filiform stigma of 
Zea Mays (Corn). 

137. In the Pine, Cedar, and the Coniferse generally, 
both the style and stigma are wanting ; and the ovary 
is represented only by a flat, open, carpellary scale, 
bearing the naked ovules at its base. 



58 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[48, 49. 



CHAPTER IX. 



THE OVULES. 



138. The ovules are understood to be transformed 
buds, destined to become seeds in the fruit. Their 
development from the margins and inner surface of 
the carpel favors this view ; for the ordinary leaves of 
Bryophyllum and some other plants do habitually pro- 
duce buds at their margin or on their upper surface ; 
and in the Mignonette, ovules themselves have been 
seen transformed into leaves. 

139. The number of ovules in the ovary varies from 
one to hundreds. Thus, in Buttercups, Compositse, and 
Grasses, the ovule is solitary ; in Umbelliferae it is also 




150, Pistil of Celosia ; the pericarp detached, showing the young ovules. 151, Flower of Rhubarb, 
pericarp removed, showing the young ovule. 152, A similar ovule (orthotropous) of Polygonum. 153, The 
same, full grown ; foramen at top. 154, Section showing its two coats, nucleus, and sac. 155, Anntropous 
ovule, as of Columbine ; a, foramen. 156, Section of same. 157, Campylotropous ovule, as of Bean ; 
a, foramen. 158, Section of a Cherry ; ovule anatropous, suspended. 159, Section of carpel of Ranuncu- 
lus ; ovule ascending. 160, Senecio ; ovule erect. 161, Hippuris ; ovule pendulous. 



solitary in each of the two carpels ; in the Pea order 
they are definite, being but few ; in Mullein and Poppy, 
indefinite (oo) 7 too many to be readily counted. As to 






49, 50.] THE OVULES. 59 

position, the ovule is erect when it grows upward 
from the base of the cell, as in Compositse ; ascending, 
when it turns upward from the side of the cell ; hori- 
zontal, when neither turning upward nor downward; 
pendulous, when turned downward ; and suspended, 
when growing directly downward from the top of the 
cell, as in Birch (158-161). 

140. The ovule at the time of flowering is soft and 
pulpy, consisting of a nucellus within two coats, sup- 
ported on a stalk. The stalk is called funiculus ; the 
point of its juncture with the base of the nucellus is 
the chalaza. The nucellus was first formed ; then the 
teg men, or inner coat, grew up from the chalaza and 
covered it; and lastly the outer coat, the testa, in- 
vested the whole. Both coats remain open at the top 
by a small orifice, the foramen. 

141. In most cases the ovule, in the course of its 
growth, changes position — curving over in various de- 
grees upon its lengthening funiculus or upon itself. 
When no such curvature exists, and it stands straight, 
as in the Buckwheat order, it is orthotropous. It is 
andtropous when completely inverted. In this state a 
portion of the funiculus adheres to the testa, forming 
a ridge called raphe, reaching from the chalaza to the 
hilum. It is campylotropous when curved upon itself. 
In this state the foramen is brought near to the cha- 
laza, and both are next the placenta, as in the Pinks 
and Cruciferse ; and amphitropous when half inverted, 
so that its axis becomes parallel with the placenta, as 
in Mallow. Here the raphe exists, but is short. In 
campylotropous ovules there is no raphe. 

142. The ovule contains no young plant (embryo) 
yet; but a cavity, the embryo sac, is already provided 



60 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [50,51. 

to receive it just within the upper end of the nu- 
cellus. 

The relations of the ovule to the pollen grain will be more suitably dis- 
cussed hereafter under the head of fertilization. "We briefly remark here that 
the immediate contact of the two is brought about, at the time of flowering, 
by special arrangements ; and that, as the undoubted result of their combined 
action, the embryo soon after originates in the embryo sac. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE FKUIT. — PEKICARP. 

143. After having received the pollen which the 
anthers have discharged, the pistil or its ovary con- 
tinues its growth and enlargement, and is finally ma- 
tured in the form of the peculiar fruit of the plant. 
The fruit is, therefore, the mature ovary. 

144. As to the other organs of the flower, having accomplished their work 
— the fertilization of the ovary — they soon wither and fall away. Some of 
them, however, often persist, to protect or become blended with the ripening 
fruit. Thus the tube of the superior calyx (§ 97) always blends with the ovary 
in fruit; as in Currant, Cucumber, etc. In Composite, the persistent limb 
enlarges into the pappus of the fruit. In Buttercups, the fruit is beaked with 
the short, persistent style. In Clematis and Q-eum, it is caudate (tailed) with 
the long, feathery style. In the Potato tribe, Labiatae, and many others, the 
inferior calyx continues to vegetate like leaves until the fruit ripens. In some 
cases the fruit, so called, consists of the receptacle and ovaries blended; as in 
Apple and Strawberry. Again — in Mulberry, Pig, and Pineapple, the whole 
inflorescence is consolidated into the matured fruit. 

145. As a rule, the structure of the fruit agrees 
essentially with that of the ovary. In many cases, 
however, the fruit undergoes such changes in the 
course of its growth from the ovary as to disguise its 
real structure. An early examination, therefore, is 
always more reliable in its results than a late one. 
For example, the acorn is a fruit with but one cell 



51.] 



THE FRUIT. 



61 



and one seed, although its ovary had three ceUs and 
six ovules ! This singular change is due to the non- 
development of five of its ovules, while the sixth grew 
the more rapidly, obliterated the partitions by press- 
ing them to the wall, and filled the whole space it- 
self. Similar changes characterize the Chestnut, Hazel- 
nut, and that whole Order. The ovary of the Birch 
is 2-celled, 2-ovuled ; but by the sup- 
pression of one cell with its ovule, the 
fruit becomes 1-celled and 1-seeded. 





162, Section of ihe ovary of an acorn, 3-celled, 6-ovuled. 163, Section of ovary of Birch, 2-celled, 
2-ovuled. 164, Vertical section of the same in fruit. 165, Pericarp of Mignonette open soon after flower- 
ing. 166, Naked seed of Taxus Canadensis, surrounded, not covered, by the fleshy pericarp. 



On the other hand, the cells are sometimes multiplied in the fruit by the 
formation of false partitions. Thus the pod of Thornapple (Datura) becomes 
4-celled from a 2-celled ovary; and the longer pods of some Leguminous 
plants have cross-partitions formed between the seeds, and the 5-celled ovary 
of the Flax comes by false partitions to be 10-celled (Fig. 136). 

146. The Pericarp. — The fruit consists of the peri- 
carp and the seed. The pericarp (nepi, around) is the 
envelope of the seeds, consisting of the carpels and 
whatever other parts they may be combined with. It 
varies greatly in texture and substance when mature, 
being then either dry, as the Pea-pod, or succulent, as 
the Currant. Dry pericarps are membranous, or coria- 
ceous (leathery), or ivoody. Succulent pericarps may 
be either wholly so, as the Grape, or partly so, as the 
Peach and other stone fruits. 

l-i7. With very few exceptions the pericarp incloses 



62 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[51, 52. 



the seed while maturing. In Mignonette (165), how- 
ever, it opens, exposing the seed, immediately after 
flowering. The membranous pericarp of Cohosh (Cau- 
lophyllum) falls away early, leaving the seed to ripen 
naked. In Yew (Taxus) the seed is never inclosed 
wholly by its fleshy pericarp ; but in most of the other 
Coniferae, the close-pressed, carpellary scales cover the 
seeds. One-seeded fruits, like those of Buttercups, etc., 
are liable to be mistaken for naked seeds. 




Capsule, 167, of Scrophularia, 2-celled; 168, of Datura Stramonium; 169, of Iris; 170, showing its mode 
of dehiscence (loculicidal). 171, of Colchicum, 3-celled. 172, Regma, ripe fruit of Geranium, the carpels 
(cocci) separating from the axis and bending upward on the elastic styles. 



148. Dehiscence. — The fleshy pericarp is always 
indehiscent Its seeds are liberated only by its decay, 
or bursting in germination. So also in many cases 
the dry pericarp, as the acorn. But more commonly 
the dry fruit, when arrived at maturity, opens in some 
way, discharging its seeds. Such fruits are dehiscent. 
Dehiscence is either valvular, porous, or circumscissile ; 
valvular, when the pericarp opens vertically along the 
sutures, forming regular parts called valves. These 
valves may separate quite to the base, or only at the 
top, forming teeth, as in Chickweed. We notice four 
modes of valvular dehiscence, viz, ; 



52, 53.] 



THE FRUIT. 



63 






1. Sutural, when it takes place at the sutures of 
any 1-celled pericarp, as Columbine, Pea, Violet. 

2. Septicidal {septum, partition, ccedo, to cut), when 
it takes place through the dissepiments (which are 
double, § 132). The carpels thus separated may open 
severally by sutures (Mallows), or remain indehiscent, 
as in Vervain. 

3. Loculicidal (loculus, a cell, ccedo, to cut), when 
each carpel opens at its dorsal suture directly into the 
cell (Evening Primrose, Lily). Here the dissepiments 
come away attached to the middle of the valves. 

4. Septifragal {septum, and frango, to break), when 
the valves separate from the dissepiments which re- 
main still united in the axis (Convolvulus). 




175 



Jk^ 



Dehiscence: 173, septicidal; 174, loculicidal; 175, septifragal. 

149. Porous dehiscence is exemplified in the Poppy, 
where the seeds escape by orifices near the top of the 
fruit. It is not common. Circumscissile {circum- 
scindo, to cut around), when the top of the ovary 
opens or falls off like a lid, as in Plantain. Some 
fruits, as the, Q-erania and Umbelliferae, are furnished 
with a carpophore, that is, a slender column from the 
receptacle — a fusiform torus, prolonged through the 
axis of the fruit, supporting the carpels. 



64 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[53, 54. 



CHAPTER XI. 



FORMS OF THE PERICARP. 



150. The morphology of the pericarp is exceedingly diversified ; but it 
Will suffice the learner at first to acquaint himself with the leading forms 
only, such as are indicated in the following synopsis and more definitely 
described afterward. 

The following is a synopsis of the principal forms of Pericarps, for the 

blackboard. 

§ 1. Free Fruits {formed by a single Flower). 

* Pericarps indeliiscent. 

t With usually but one seed, and 
t Uniform, or 1-coated. 

1. Separated from the seed. 

2. Inflated, often breaking away. 

3. Inseparable from the seed. 

4. Invested with a cupule (involucre). 

5. Having winged appendages. 
t Double or triple-coated, fleshy or fibrous. 

6. Three-coated. Stone cell entire. 

7. Two-coated. Stone cell 2-parted. 

8. Drupes aggregated, 
t "With two or more seeds, 

$ Immersed in a fleshy or pulpy mass. 

9. Rind membranous. 

10. Rind leathery, separable. 

11. Rind hard, crustaceous. 
$ 12. Inclosed in distinct cells. 



Akene (Buttercups). 
Utricle (Pigweed). 
Caryopsis (Grasses). 
Glans, Acorn (Oak). 
Samara, Key (Ash). 

Drupe (Cherry). 
Tryma (Walnut). 
Etserio (Raspberry). 



Berry (G-ooseberry). 
Hesperidium (Orange). 
Pepo (Squash). 
Pome (Apple). 



Pericarps dehiscent. 

t 13. Dehiscence circumscissile, seeds oo. 
t Dehiscence valvular or porous ; 
t Simple, or 1-carpelled, 

14. Opening by the ventral suture. 

15. Opening by both sutures. 

16. Legume jointed. 

t Compound pericarps ; 

17. Placentae parietal with two cells. 

Silique short. 

18. Placentae parietal only when 1-celled. 

19. Capsule with carpophore and elastic 

styles. 









Pyxis (Henbane). 



Follicle (Columbine). 
Legume (Pea). 
Loment (Desmodium). 

Silique (Mustard). 

Silicle (Shepherd's Purse). 

Capsule (Plax). 

Regma (G-eranium). 



§ 2. Confluent Fruits {formed of an Inflorescence). 

* 20. With open carpels aggregated into a cone. Strobile (Pine). 

* 21. With closed carpels aggregated into a mass. Sorosis (Pineapple). 



54, 55.] 



FORMS OF THE PERICARP. 



65 



151. The akene is a small, dry, indehiscent peri- 
carp, free from the one seed which it contains, and 
tipped with the remains of the style (Buttercups, 
Lithospermum). 

Th.e double akene of the UmbelUferee, supported on a ca?*pop?iore, is called 
cremocarp (177). Tne akenes of the Conipositae, usually crowned with a pap- 
pus, are called cypsela (178). 

The akenes are often mistaken for seeds. In the iLabiatae and Borrage- 
worts they are associated in fours (141). In G-eum, Anemone, etc., they are 
collected in heads. The rich pulp of the Strawberry consists wholly of the 
overgrown receptacle, which bears the dry akenes on its surface (184). 

152. The utricle is a small, thin pericarp, fitting 
loosely upon its one seed, and often opening trans- 
versely to discharge it (Pigweed, Prince's Feather). 




176, Akenes of Anemone thalictroides. 177, Cremocarp of Archangeliea officinalis, its halves (mono- 
carps) separated and suspended on the carpophore. 178, Cyp?ela of Thistle with its plumous pappus. 
179, Utricle of Chenopodium (Pigweed). 180, Oaryopsis of Wheat. 181, Samara of Elm. 182, Glaus of 
Beech. 183, Drupe of Pruuus. 184, Fruit of Fragaria Indica, a fleshy torus like the Strawberry. 

153. Oaryopsis, the grain or fruit of the Grasses, is 
a thin, dry, . 1 -seeded pericarp, inseparable from the 
seed. 

154. Samara; dry, 1 -seeded, indehiscent, furnished 
with a membranous wing or wings (Ash, Elm, Maple). 

155. Grlans, or nut; hard, dry, indehiscent, com- 
monly 1-seeded by suppression (§ 145), and invested 



66 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[55, 56. 



with a persistent involucre called a cupule, either soli- 
tary (Acorn, Hazelnut) or several together (Chestnut). 

156. Drupe, stone-fruit; a 3-coated, 1 -celled, inde- 
hiscent pericarp, as the Cherry and Peach. The outer 
coat (epidermis) is called the epicarp ; the inner is the 
nucellus or endocarp, hard and stony ; the intervening 
pulp or fleshy coat is the sarcocarp (odp%, flesh). These 
coats are not distinguishable in the ovary. 

157. Tryma, a 2-coated drupe; the epicarp fibro- 
fleshy (Butternut) or woody (Hickory) ; the nucellus 
bony, with its cell often deeply 2-parted (Cocoanut). 




Fruits. — 185, Etaerio of Rubus strigosus (Blackberry). 186, Pepo ; section of Cucumber. 187, Berry 
Grape. 188, Pome ; Crataegus (Haw). 189, Pyxis of Jeffersonia. 190, Legume of Pea. 191, Loment of 
Pesmodium. 192, Silique of Mustard. 193, Silicle of Capsella. 



158. Etcerio, an aggregate fruit consisting of numer- 
ous little drupes united to each other (Raspberry) or to 
the fleshy receptacle (Blackberry). 

159. Berry, a succulent, thin-skinned pericarp, hold- 
ing the seeds loosely imbedded in the pulp (Currant, 
Grape). 



55-57.] FORMS OF THE PERICARP. 67 

160. Hesperidium, a succulent, many-carpelled fruit; 
the rind thick, leathery, separable from the pulpy mass 
within (Orange, Lemon). 

161. Pepo, an indehiscent, compound, fleshy fruit, 
with a hardened rind and parietal placentae (Melon). 

162. The pome is an indehiscent pericarp, formed 
of the permanent calyx and fleshy receptacle, con- 
taining several cartilaginous (Apple) or bony (Haw) 
cells. 

168. The pyxis is a many-seeded, dry fruit, open- 
ing like a lid by a circumscissile dehiscence (Plantain, 
Henbane, Jeffersonia). 

164. The follicle is a single carpel, 1 -celled, many- 
seeded, opening at the ventral suture (Columbine, Lark- 
spur, Silk-grass). 

165. The legume, or pod, is a single carpel, 1-celled, 
usually splitting into two valves, but bearing its 1 — oo 
seeds along the ventral suture only, in one row, as in 
the Bean and all the Leguminosae. It is sometimes 
curved or coiled like a snail-shell (Medicago). The 
lament is a jointed pod, separating across into 1-seeded 
portions (Desmodium). 

166. Silique. A pod, linear, 2-carpelled, 2-valved, 
2-celled by a false dissepiment extended between the 
two parietal placentae. To this false dissepiment on 
both sides of both edges the seeds are attached (Mus- 
tard). The silicle is a short silique, nearly as wide as 
long (Shepherd's Purse). The silique and silicle are 
the peculiar fruit of all the Cruciferae. 

167. Capsule (casket). This term includes all other 
forms of dry, dehiscent fruits, compound, opening by 
as many valves as there are carpels (Iris), or by twice 
as many (Chickweed), or by pores (Poppy). 



68 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[5?. 



168. The Begma is a kind of capsule like that of 
the Geranium, whose dehiscent carpels separate elastic- 
ally, but still remain attached to the carpophore. 

169. Strobile, or Cone; an aggregate fruit consist- 
ing of a conical or oval mass of imbricated scales, each 
an open carpel ( ? flower), bearing seeds on its inner 
side at base, i. e., axillary seeds (Pine and the Gyznno- 
sperms generally). The Gone (syncarpium, avv y togeth- 
er) of the Magnolia tribe is a mass of confluent, closed 
pericarps on a lengthened torus (Cucumber Tree). 








194, Strobile of Pinus. 19f , The Fig (syconus). 196, Sorosis of Mulberry. 197, Hip of Rosa, achenia 
nearly inclosed in the leathery calyx tube. 



170. The Fig (syconium) is an aggregate fruit, con- 
sisting of numerous seed-like akenes inclosed within 
a hollow, fleshy receptacle, where the flowers were 
attached. 

171. Other confluent fruits (Sorosis) consist of the 
entire inflorescence developed into a mass of united 
pericarps, as in the Mulberry, Osage-orange, Pineapple. 



58.] 



THE SEED. 



69 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE SEED. 

172. The seed is the perfected ovule, having an 
embryo formed within, which is the rudiment of a new 
plant, similar in all respects to the original. The seed 
consists of a nucellus or kernel, invested with the 
integuments or coverings. The outer covering is the 
testa, the inner the tegmen, as 
in the ovule. The latter is 
thin and delicate, often indis- 
tinguishable from the testa. 

173. The testa is either 
membranous (papery), coria- 
ceous (leathery), crustaceous 
(horny), bony, woody, or fleshy. 
Its surface is generally smooth, 
sometimes beautifully polished, 
as in Columbine, Indian-shot 
(Canna), and often highly col- 
ored, as in the Bean ; or it 
may be dull and rough. It is 
sometimes winged, as in Ca- 

talpa, and sometimes clothed with long hairs, as in 
Silk-grass (Asclepias). Such a vesture is called 
Coma. Cotton is the coma of the Cotton-seed. 




198, Aril of Nutmeg (mace). 199, Seed of 
Catalpa. 200, Seed of Willow. 201, Seed of 
Cotton. 



the 



174. The coma must not be confounded with the pappus (§ 104), which is 
a modification of the calyx, appended to the pericarp, and not to the seed, as 
in the akenes of the Thistle, Dandelion, and other Composite. Its intention 
in the economy of the plant can not be mistaken ; serving like the pappus to 
secure the dispersion of the seed, while incidentally, in the case of the Cotton- 
seed, it furnishes clothing and employment to a large portion of the human 
race. 



70 



STKUCTURAL BOTAHY. 



[58, 59. 



175. The aril is an occasional appendage, partially or wholly investing 
the seed. It originates after fertilization, at or near the hilum, where the 
seed is attached to its stalk (funiculus). Pine examples are seen in the gashed 
covering of the Nutmeg, called mace, and in the scarlet coat of the seed of 
Staff-tree. In the seed of Polygala, etc., it is but a small scale, entire or 
2-cleft, called caruncle. 

176. The position of the seed in the pericarp is, like that of the ovule, 
erect, ascending, pendulous, etc. (§ 149). Likewise, in respect to its inversions, it 
is orthotropous, anatropous, amphitropous, and campylotropous (§ 141), terms already 
denned. The anatropous is by far the most common condition. 

177. The hilum is the scar or mark left in the 
testa of the seed by its separation from the funiculus. 
It is commonly called the eye, as in the Bean. In 
orth6tropous and campyl6tropous seeds, the hilum cor- 
responds with the chalaza (§140). In other conditions 
it does not; and the raphe (§ 141) extends between 
the two points, as in the ovules. The foramen of the 
ovule is closed up in the seed, leaving a slight mark — 
the 'micropyle. 

203 204 

205 206 




212 213 

208 ^ 210 '211 

202, Seed of Water Lily (Nymphaea), enlarged section ; aTb., albumen ; a, the embryo contained in the 
embryo-sac ; s, tegmen ; p, testa ; r, raphe ; a , aril ; m, orifice ; /, funiculus. 203, Seed of Bean. 204, 
Same, one cotyledon with the leafy embryo. 205, Seed of Apple. 206, One cotyledon showing the raphe 
and embryo. 207, Fruit of Mirabilis ; embryo coiled into a ring. 208, Onion ; embryo coiled. 209, Con- 
volvulus ; leafy embryo folded. 210, Embryo of Cuscuta. 211, Typha. 212, Ranunculus. 213, Hop. 

178. The seed-kernel may consist of two parts, the 
embryo and albumen, or of the embryo only. In the 
former case the seeds are albuminous; in the latter, 
exalbuminous ; a distinction of great importance in 
systematic botany. 



59, 60.] THE SEED. 7 1 

179. The albumen or endosperm is a starchy or 
farinaceous substance accompanying the embryo and 
serving as its first nourishment in germination. Its 
qualities are wholesome and nutritious, even in poison- 
ous plants. Its quantity, when compared with the 
embryo, varies in every possible degree ; being ex- 
cessive (Ranunculaceae), or about equal (Violaceae), or 
scanty (Convolvulaceee), or none at all (Leguminosse). 
In texture it is mealy in Wheat, mucilaginous in 
Mallows, oily in Ricinus, horny in Coffee, ruminated 
in Nutmeg and Papaw, ivory-like in the Ivory-palm, 
fibrous in Cocoanut, where it is also hollow, inclosing 
the milk. 

180. The embryo is an organized body, the rudi- 
ment of the future plant, consisting of root (radicle), 
stem-bud (plumule), and leaves (cotyledons). But these 
parts are sometimes quite indistinguishable until ger- 
mination, as in the Orchis tribe. The Radicle is the 
descending part of the embryo, always pointing toward 
the micropyle, the true vertex of the seed. The Plu- 
mule is the germ of the ascending axis, the terminal 
bud, located between or at the base of the Cotyledons. 
These are the seed-lobes, the bulky farinaceous part of 
the embryo, destined to become the first or seminal 
leaves of the young plant. The nutritive matter de- 
posited in the seed for the early sustenance of the 
germinating embryo, is found more abundant in the 
cotyledons in proportion as there is less of it in the 
albumen — often wholly in the albumen (Wheat), again 
all absorbed in the bulky cotyledons (Squash). 

181. The number of the cotyledons is variable; 
and upon this circumstance is founded the most im- 
portant subdivision of the Flowering Plants. The 



72 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[60, 61. 



monocotyledons are plants bearing seeds with one 
cotyledon ; or if two are present, one is minute or 
abortive. Such plants are also called Endogens, be- 
cause their stems do not grow exogenously (§ 421). 
Such are the Grasses, the Palms and Lilies, whose 
leaves are mostly constructed with parallel veins. 




217 




214, Dicotyledonous (Bean). 215, Monocotyledonous (Wheat). 216, Polycotyledonous (Pine). 217, 
Acotyledonous (zoospore of one of the Confervae). (r, r, r, radicle ; p, p, p, plumule ; c, c, c, cotyledon ; 
a, albumen.) 

182. The dicotyledons are plants bearing seeds 
with two cotyledons. These are also called Exogens, 
because their stems grow by external accretions ; in- 
cluding the Bean tribe, Melon tribe, all our forest 
trees, etc. These are also distinguished at a glance 
by the structure of their leaves, which are net-veined 
(§ 280). More than two cotyledons are found in 
the seeds of Pine and Fir ; while the Dodder is 
almost the only known example of an embryo with no 
cotyledon. 

183. The position of the embryo, whether with or 
without albumen, is singularly varied and interesting 
to study. It may be straight, as in Cat-tail and Vio- 
let, or curved in various degrees (Moonseed and Pink), 
or coiled (Hop), or rolled (Spicebush), or bent angularly 
(Buckwheat), or folded (Cruciferae). In the last case 



61, 62.] THE SEED. 73 

two modes are to be specially noticed. 1. Incumbent, 
when the cotyledons fold over so as to bring the back 
of one against the radicle (Shepherd's Purse) ; 2. Ac- 
cumbent, when the edges touch the radicle (Arabis) . 

184. A few plants, as the Onion, Orange, and Coniferee, occasionally have 
two or even several embryos in a seed ; while all the Cryptogamia or flower- 
less plants have no embryo at all, nor even seeds, but are reproduced from 
spores — bodies analogous to the pollen-grains of flowering plants (217). 

185. Vitality of the seed.— After the embryo has 
reached its growth in the ripened seed, it becomes 
suddenly inactive, yet still alive. In this condition it 

.is, in fact, a living plant, safely packed and sealed up 
for transportation. This suspended vitality of the seed 
may endure for years, or even, in some species, for 
ages. The seeds of Maize and Eye have been known 
to grow when 40 years old; Kidney-beans when 100; 
the Raspberry after 1700 years (Lindley). Seeds of 
Mountain Potentilla were known to us to germinate 
after a slumber of 60 years. On the other hand, the 
seeds of some species are short-lived, retaining vitality 
hardly a year (Coffee, Magnolia). 

186. Tlie dispersion of seeds over wide, and often to distant regions, is 
effected by special agencies, in which the highest Intelligence and Wisdom 
are clearly seen. Some seeds made buoyant by means of the coma or pappus, 
already mentioned, are wafted afar by the winds, beyond rivers, lakes, and 
seas ; as the Thistle and Dandelion. Other seeds have wings for the same 
purpose. Others are provided with hooks or barbs, by which they lay hold of 
men and animals, and are thus, by unwilling agents, scattered far and wide 
(Burr-seed, Tick-seed). Again : some seeds, destitute of all such appendages, 
are thrown to a distance by the sudden coiling of the elastic carpels (Touch- 
me-not). The Squirting-cucumber becomes distended with water by absorp- 
tion, and at length', when ripe, bursts an aperture at the base by separating 
from the stem, and projects the mingled seeds and water with amazing force. 

187. Rivers, streams, and ocean currents, are agents for transporting 
seeds from country to country. Thus the Cocoa, and the Cashew-nut, and 
the seeds of Mahogany, have been known to perforin long voyages without 
injury to their vitality. Squirrels laying up their winter stores in the earth ; 
birds migrating from clime to clime and from island to island, in like manner 
conspire to effect the same important end. 



74 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[62, 63. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



GERMINATION. 



188. The recommencement of growth in the seed 
is called germination. It is the awakening of the 
embryo from its torpor, and the beginning of develop- 
ment in its parts already formed, so as to become a 
plant like its parent. 




218 




220 




219 



Germination of the Beechnut. — 218, Cross-section, showing the folded cotyledons. 219, The radicle 
only. 220, The nscending axis, above c, appears, 221, The cotyledons expand into the primordial 
leaves. 222, The first true leaves. 

189. All the stages of this interesting process may be conveniently ob- 
served, at any season, by an experiment. Let a few seeds, as of flax, cotton, 
or wheat, be enveloped in a lock of cotton resting upon water in a bulb- 
glass, and kept constantly at a proper temperature. Or, in Spring, the garden- 
soil will give us examples of all kinds everywhere. 



190. That the seed may begin to grow, or germi- 
nate, it is first planted; or, at least, placed in contact 
with warm, moist soil. Concerning the proper depth 



63.] 



GEEMIXATIOJS". 



75 



of the planted seed, agriculturists are not agreed ; bus 
nature seems to indicate that no covering is needed 
beyond what will secure the requisite moisture and 
shade. Thus situated, the integuments gradually ab- 
sorb water, soften, and expand. The insoluble, starchy 
matter deposited in the cotyledons, or in the albumen, 
or in both, undergoes a certain chemical change, be- 
coming sweet and soluble, capa- 
ble of affording nourishment to 
the embryo now beginning to 
dilate and develop its parts. 
First (in the winged seed of the 
Maple, scattered everywhere) the 
radicle is seen protruding from 
the micropyle, or the bursting 
coverings. A section of this 
seed would now show the folded 
embryo, impatient of confine- 
ment (225). 

191. Soon after, the radicle 
has extended ; and, pale in color, 
has hidden itself in the dark, 
damp earth. Now the cotyledons, 
unfolding and gradually freed 
from the seed-coats, display themselves at length as a 
pair of green leaves. Lastly, the plumule appears in open 
air, a green bud, already showing a lengthening base, 
its first internode, and soon a pair of regular leaves, 
lobed as all Maple-leaves. The embryo is now an em- 
bryo no longer, but a growing plant, descending by its 
lower axis, ascending and expanding by its upper. 

192. With equal advantage we may watch the ger- 
mination of the Beech, represented in the figures 




Germination of Wheat. — o, the grain, 
containing the cotyledon ; c, plumule ; 
r, radicle ; s, rootlets (adventitious). 



76 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[63, 64. 



above ; or of the Oak, as displayed in figures 1, 2, 3, 
4 ; or the Pea, or Squash, and other Dicotyledons ; and 
the chief difference observed among them will be in 
the disposal of the cotyledons. In general, these arise 
with the ascending axis, as in Maple and Bean, and 
act as the first pair of leaves. But sometimes, when 
they are very thick, as in Pea, Buckeye, and Oak, they 
never escape the seed-coats, but remain and perish at 
the collum (§ 199), neither ascending nor descending. 




Germination of the Maple. — 225, Samara ; section showing the folded cotyledons at c. 226-230, Pro- 
gressive stages. 



193. The germination of monocotyledons, as seen 
in Indian Corn, Wheat, and Tulip, is in this wise. The 
cotyledon is not disengaged from the seed, but remains 
stationary with it. The radicle (r) protrudes slightly, 
and one or more rootlets (s) break out from it and 
descend. The plumule (c) shoots at first parallel with 
the cotyledon along the face of the seed, but soon 
ascends, pushing out leaf from within leaf. 

194. The conditions requisite for germination are 



64, 65.] 



GERMINATION 



77 



moisture, air, and warmth. Moisture is necessary for 
softening the integuments, dissolving the nutritive 
matter, and facilitating its circulation. This is sup- 
plied in the rain and dew. Air, or rather its oxygen, 
is required for the con- 
version of the starch into 
sugar — a process always 
depending upon oxidation. 
The oxygen absorbed 
unites with a portion of 
the carbon of the starch, 
producing heat, evolving 
carbon dioxide, and thus 
converting the remainder 
into grape-sugar, soluble 
and nutritive. 

195. Warmth is a req- 
uisite condition of all vital 
action, as well in the 
sprouting of a seed as in 
the hatching of an egg. 

The proper degree of temperature for our own climate 
may be stated at 60° to 90°. Extremes of heat and 
of cold are not, however, fatal to all germination. In 
one of the Geysers of Iceland, which was hot enough 
to boil an egg in four minutes, a species of Chara was 
found in a growing and fruitful state. The hot springs 
and pools of San Bernardino, California, at the con- 
stant heat of 190°, have several species of plants grow- 
ing within their waters. Many species also arise and 
flower in the snows of Mt. Hood, along their lower 
borders. Darkness is favorable to germination, as 
proved by experiment, but not an indispensable condi- 




231, 232, Germination of Indian Corn. 



78 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[65, 66. 



tion. Hence, while the seed should be covered, for the 
sake of the moisture and shade, the covering should 
be thin and light, for the sake of a free access to air. 

196. The cause of the downward tendency of the root is a theme of ranch 
discussion. Some have referred it to the principle of gravitation ; others to 
its supposed aversion to light. But it is a simple and satisfactory explanation 
that its growth or cell-development takes place most readily on the moist side 
of its growing-point, and consequently in a downward direction, so long as the 
soil in contact with its lower surface is more moist than that above. Hence, 
also, the well-known tendency of roots toward springs and water-courses. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE BOOT, OB DESCENDING AXIS. 

197. The Root is the basis of the plant, and the 
principal organ of nutrition. It originates with the 




2 3, White Clover — an axial root (with minute tubers). 234, Buttercups— fibrous roots, inaxial. 235, Eri- 

genia — root tuberous. 

radicle of the seed, the tendency of its growth is down- 
ward, and it is generally immersed in the soil. Its 



66, 67.] 



THE ROOT. 



79 



/^^ 



office is twofold ; viz., to support the plant in its posi- 
tion, and to imbibe from the soil the food necessary to 
the growth of the plant. 

198. The leading propensity of the root is to divide 
itself; and its only normal appendages are branches, 
branchlets, fibers, and flbrillsB, which are multiplied to 
an indefinite extent, corresponding with the multipli- 
cation of the leaves, twigs, etc., 

above. This at once insures a firm 
hold upon the earth, and brings a 
large absorbing surface in contact 
with the moist soil. 

199. The summit of the root, 
or that place where the root meets 
the stem, is called the cdllum ,; the 
remote, opposite extremities of the 
fine rootlets, or fibers, are covered 
by dry, protective cells, forming a 
root-cap ; the sides of these fibers 
are chiefly active in absorbing 
liquid nourishment, and are mostly 
covered by root-hairs, which in- 
crease their absorbing surface. The hairs arise from 
the tender epidermis or skin, and perish when that 
thickens into bark. They are developed and perish 
annually with the leaves, whose servants they are. 
Few of them remain after the fall of the leaf. This 
fact plainly # indicates that the proper time for trans- 
planting trees or shrubs is the late Autumn, Winter, 
or early Spring, when there are but few tender fibrillae 
to be injured. 

200. Two modes of root-development are definitely 
distinguished. First, the Axial mode is that where 




236, Extremity of a rootlet of Ma- 
ple, with its hairs and root -cap (a) 
magnified 50 diameters. 



80 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [67, 68. 

the primary, simple radicle, in growing, extends itself 
downward in a main body more or less branched, 
continuous with the stem, and forms the permanfent 
root of the plant. Such is the case with the Maple, 
Mustard, Beet, and most of the Dicotyledonous Plants 
(§ 183). 

201. Secondly, the Diffuse development is that 
where the primary radicle proves abortive, never 
developing into an axial root ; but, growing lat- 
erally only, it sends out little shoots from its sides, 
which grow into long, slender roots, nearly equal 
in value, none of them continuous with the stem. 
Of this nature are the roots of all the Grasses, 
the Lilies, and the Monocotyledons generally, and of 
the Cryptogamia. Plants raised from layers, cuttings, 
tubers, and slips are necessarily destitute of the axial 
root. 

202. The various forms of the root are naturally 
and conveniently referred to these two modes of devel- 
opment. The principal axial forms are the -ramous, 
fusiform, napiform, and conical. To all these forms 
the general name tap-root is applied. The ramous is 
the woody tap-root of most trees and shrubs, where 
the main root branches extensively, and is finally dis- 
solved and lost in multiplied ramifications. 

203. Tuberous tap-roots. — In herbaceous plants 
the tap-root often becomes thick and fleshy, with com- 
paratively few branches. This tendency is peculiarly 
marked in biennials (§ 41), where the root serves as a 
reservoir of the superabundant food which the plant 
accumulates during its first year's growth, and keeps 
in store against the exhausting process of fruit-bearing 
in its second year. Such is the Fusiform (spindle- 



68, 69.] 



THE ROOT. 



81 



shaped) root — thick, succulent, tapering downward, 
and also for a short space upward. Beet, Radish, and 
Ginseng are examples. The Conical root tapers all 
the way from the collum downward (Carrot). The 
Napiform (turnip-shaped) swells out in its upper part 
so that its breadth equals or exceeds its length, as in 
Erigenia (233) and Turnip (239). 




Maple — an axial, r anions root. 238, Parsnip — a fusiform root. 239, Turnip — a napiform root. 240, 
Corallorhiza — a coralline root. 



204. The forms of diffuse roots are fibrous, fibro- 
tuberous, tubercular, coralline, nodulous, and monili- 
form. The fibrous root consists of numerous thread- 
like divisions, sent off directly from the base of the 
stem, with no main or tap-root. Such are the roots of 
most Grasses, which multiply their fibers excessively 
in light sandy soils. Fibro-tuberous roots (or fascicu- 
late) are so called when some of the fibers are thick 
and fleshy, as in the Asphodel, Crowfoot, Paeony, 
Orchis, and Dahlia. When the fiber is enlarged in 
certain parts only, it is nodulous; and when the en- 
largements occur at regular intervals, it is moniliform 



82 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[60, 70. 



(necklace-like). When it bears little tubers here and 
there, as in Squirrel-corn, it is tubercular. 

205. Deposits of starch, or farinaceous matter, in 
all these cases, constitute the thickening substance of 
the root, stored up for the future use of the plant. 




241, Pseony — fibro-tuberous roots. 242, Ginseng — fusiform root. 243, Pelargonium triste — moniliform 
root. 244, Spirea filipendula— nodulous root. 245, A creeping stem, with adventitious roots. 



206. Adventitious roots are such as originate in some part of the 
ascending axis — stem or branches — whether above or below the ground. 
They are so called because their origin is indeterminate, both in place and 
time. Several special forms should be noticed; as the cirrhous roots of certain 
climbing vines (European Ivy, Poison Ivy, Trumpet-creeper) put forth in great 
numbers from the stem, serving for its mechanical support and no other 
known use. Again : the Fulcra of certain Monocotyledonous plants originate 
high up the stem, and descending obliquely enter the ground. The Indian 
Corn frequently puts forth such roots from its lower joints, and thereby be- 
comes strongly braced. The Screw Pine (Pandanus) of the conservatories 
puts forth fulcra often several feet in length. 

207. The Banian Tree (Pious Indicus) drops " adventitious " roots from 
its extended branches, which, reaching and entering the ground, grow to sup- 
porting columns, like secondary trunks. Thus a single tree becomes at length 
a grove capable of sheltering an army. 

208. Epiphytes (era, upon, (frvrov, a plant), a class of 
plants, called also air-plants, have roots which are 
merely mechanical, serving to fix such plants firmly 
upon other plants or trees, while they derive their 



70.] 



THE ROOT. 



83 



nourishment wholly from the air. The Long-moss 
(Tillandsia) and Conopseum are examples. 




247, Old Oak trunk with horizontal branch bearing epiphytes and para- 
sites, a, A fern (Polypodium incanum). b, Epidendrum conopseum. cc, 
Long-moss (Tillandsia). d, Mistletoe (Yiscum). e, Lichen. 

209. Parasites — Three classes. Very 
different in nature are the roots of 
those plants called parasites, which feed 
upon the juices of other plants or trees. 
Such roots penetrate the bark of the nurse-plant to 
the cambium layer beneath, and appropriate the stolen 
juices to their own growth ; as the Dodder and Mistle- 
toe. Other parasites, although standing in the soil, are 
fixed upon foreign roots, and thence derive either their 
entire sustenance, as the Beech-drops and other leaf- 
less, colorless plants, or a part of their sustenance, as 
the Cow-wheat (Melampyrum) and Gerardia. 

210. Subterranean stems.— As there are aerial roots, so there are sub- 
terranean stems. , These are frequently mistaken for roots, but may be known 
by their habitually and regularly producing buds. Of this nature are the 
tubers of the Irish Potato, the rootstock of the Sweet-flag, the bulb of the 
Tulip. But even the true root may sometimes develop buds — accidentally as 
it were — in consequence of some injury to the upper axis, or some other 
unnatural condition. 



84 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



m. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE STEM, OR ASCENDING AXIS. 

211. The general idea of the Axis is this: the cen- 
tral substantial portion of the plant, bearing the 
appendages, viz., roots below, and the leaf-organs 
above. The Ascending Axis is that which originates 
with the plumule, tends upward in its growth, and 
expands itself to the influence of the air and the light. 




248, Procumbent stem— Chiogenes hispidula. 



212. Although the first direction of the stem's 
growth is vertical in all plants, there are many in 
which this direction does not continue, but changes 
into the oblique or horizontal, either just above the 




249, Decumbent stem— Anagallis arvensis. 



surface of the ground, or just beneath it. If the stem 
continues to arise in the original direction, as it most 
commonly does, it is said to be erect. If it grow 
along the ground without rooting, it is said to be pro- 



71, 72.] THE STEM. 85 

cumbent, prostrate, trailing. If it recline upon the 
ground after having at the base arisen somewhat 
above it, it is decumbent. If it arise obliquely from a 
prostrate base, it is said to be assurgent ; and if it 
continue buried beneath the soil, it is subterranean. 
Such stems, although buried like roots, may readily be 
known by their buds, as already explained (§ 210). 

213. Stems are either simple or branched. The 
simple stem is produced by the unfolding of the pri- 
mary bud (the plumule) in the direction of its point 
alone. As this bud is developed below into the length- 
ening stem, it is continually reproduced at its summit, 
and so is always borne at the termination of the stem. 
Hence the axis is always terminated by a bud. 

214. The Branching Stem, which is by far the most 
common, is produced by the development of both ter- 
minal and axillary buds. The axis produces a bud in 
the axil of its every leaf ; that is, at a point just above 
the origin of the leaf-stalk. These buds remain in- 
active in the case of the simple stem, as the Mullein; 
but more generally are developed into leafy subdivis- 
ions of the axis, and the stem thus becomes branched. 
A Branch is, therefore, a division of the axis produced 
by the development of an axillary bud. It repeats the 
internal structure of the stem, but is sometimes pe- 
culiar in being bilaterally symmetrical or having its 
upper and under surfaces unlike. 

215. The Arrangement of the Branches upon the 
stem, depends, therefore, upon the arrangement of the 
leaves ; which will be more particularly noticed here- 
after. This arrangement is beautifully regular, accord- 
ing to established laws. In this place we briefly notice 
three general modes. The Alternate arrangement is 



86 



STRUCTURAL B0TAKY. 



[72, 73. 



where but one branch arises from each joint (node) on 
different sides of the stem, as in the Elm. The Oppo- 
site is where two branches stand on opposite sides of 
the same node, as in Maple. The Verticillate is where 
three or more branches, equidistant, encircle the stem 
at each node, as in the Pine. Dichotomous branching 
is where a main or secondary axis forks into two 
equal divisions, as often occurs in Flowerless Plants. 

216. Some plants produce adventitious roots which 
may become independent. Nurserymen in this way 
propagate scions, suckers, stolons, offsets, slips, layers, 
cuttings, and runners. The Sucker is a branch issuing 
from some underground portion of the plant, leaf- 
bearing above and sending out roots from its own 
base, becoming finally a separate, independent plant. 
The Rose and Raspberry are thus multiplied. 




250, a, Slip (Gooseberry) taking root. 6, Cutting (Grape) taking root, c, Stolons or layers artificially 
arranged for propagation, d, A mode of dwarfing ; the vessel, v, is filled with. soil, e, Scions ; process of 
grafting. /, A sucker. 



217. The Stolon, or Layer, is a branch issuing from 
some above-ground portion of the stem, and afterward 
declining to the ground, taking root at or near its ex- 
tremity, sending up new shoots, and becoming a new 






73, 74.] 



THE STEM. 



87 



plant. The Hobble-bush and Black-raspberry do this 
naturally, and gardeners imitate the process in many 
plants. 

218. The Scion is any healthy twig or branchlet 
bearing one or more buds, used by the gardeners in 
the common process of grafting. Slips and cuttings 
are fragments of ordinary branches or stems, consist- 
ing of young wood bearing one or more buds. These 
strike root when planted in the ground. So the Grape- 
vine and Hop. The Offset is merely a scion severed 
from the parent and set in the ground to strike root. 

219. The Runner is a prostrate, filiform branch, 
issuing from certain short-stemmed herbs, extending 
itself along the surface of the ground, striking root at 
its end without being buried. Thence leaves arise, and 
a new plant, which in turn sends out new runners, as 
in the Strawberry. 




251, A Strawberry plant (Fragaria vesca) sending out a runner. 



220. The Node, or joint of the stem, marks a defi- 
nite point of a peculiar organization, where the leaf 
with its axillary bud arises. The nodes occur at regu- 
lar intervals, and the spaces between them are termed 
internodes. They provide for the symmetrical arrange- 
ment of the leaves and branches of the stem. In the 



88 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [73-75. 

root no such provision is made, and the branches have 
a less definite arrangement. Now the growth of the 
stem consists in the development of the internodes. 
In the bud, the nodes are closely crowded together, 
with no perceptible internodes ; thus bringing the rudi- 
mentary leaves in close contact with each other. But 
in the stem, which is afterward evolved from that bud, 
we see full-grown leaves separated by considerable 
spaces. That is, while leaves are developed from the 
rudiments, internodes are pushed out from the grow- 
ing point. 

221. There are, however, many species of plants, 
especially of herbs, in which the axis of the primary 
bud does not develop into internodes at all, or but par- 
tially in various degrees. See the axis of Trillium, 
Onion, and Bloodroot. Such stems seldom appear 
above-ground. They are subterranean. This fact 
makes a wide difference in the forms of stems, and nat- 
urally separates them into two great divisions — viz., 
the Leaf-bearing Stems and the Scale-bearing Stems. 






CHAPTER XVI. 

FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 

222. The leaf-bearing stems are those forms which, 
with internodes fully developed, rise into the air 
crowned with leaves. The principal forms are the 
caulis, culm, trunk, caudex, and vine. They are either 
herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous stems bear fruit but 
one season and then perish, at least down to the root, 
scarcely becoming woody ; as seen in Mustard, Radish, 



76.] 



FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 



89 



and Grasses. But woody stems survive the Winter, 
and often become firm and solid in substance in after 
years ; as do all the forest trees. 




252, Scale-stem i,Dieentra cueullaria). ^3, A flower of the same. 254, A flower of D. Canadensis. 
255, Leaf-stem Ohimaphila maculata). 



223. Caulis is a term generally applied to the 
annual leafy stems of herbaceous plants. "Haulm "is 
a term used in England with the same signification. 
Caulescent and acaidescent are convenient terms, the 
former denoting the presence, and the latter the ab- 
sence of the caulis or aerial stem. 

224. The culm is the stem of the Grasses and the 
Sedges, generally jointed, often hollow, rarely becom- 
ing woody ; as in Cane and Bamboo. 

2 25. The truxk is the name of the peculiar stems 
of arborescent plants. It is the central column or axis 



90 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[76, 77. 



whicii supports their branching tops and withstands 
the assaults of the wind by means of the great firm- 
ness and strength of the woody or ligneous tissue with 
which it abounds. The trunk is usually seen simple 
and columnar below, for a certain space, then variously 
dividing itself into branches. Here it is cylindrical, 
straight, and erect, as in the Forest Pine ; prismatic 
often, as in the Gum-tree ; gnarled and curved, as in 
the Oak ; or inclined far over its base, as in the Syca- 
more. 

5&* 




S B E 

256, S, Spruce. B, Beech. E, Elm ; to illustrate excurrent and deliquescent axis. 

226. In dividing itself into branches, we observe 
two general modes, with their numerous variations, 
strikingly characterizing the tree forms. In the one, 
named by Lindley the excurrent, the trunk, from the 
superior vigor of its terminal bud, takes precedence of 



77.] FOKMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 91 

the branches, and runs through to the summit, as in 
the Beech, Birch, Oak, and especially in the Spruce — 
trees with oval or pyramidal forms. But in the other, 
the deliquescent axis, as seen in the Elm and Apple- 
tree, the trunk suddenly divides into several subequal 
branches, which thence depart with different degrees 
of divergency, giving the urn form to the Elm, the 
rounded form to the Apple-tree, the depressed form to 
the Sloe-tree (Viburnum) and Dogwood. 

227. Caudex is a terra now applied to the peculiar trunk of the Palms 
and Tree-ferns, simple, branchless columns, or rarely dividing in advanced 
age. It is produced by the growth of the terminal bud alone, and its sides 
are marked by the scars of the fallen leaf -stalks of former years, or are yet 
covered by their persistent bases, The stock or caudex of the cactus tribe is 
extraordinary in form and substance. It is often jointed, prismatic, branched, 
always greenish, fleshy, and full of a watery juice. Instead of leaves, its lat- 
eral buds develop spines only, the stem itself performing the functions of 
leaves. These plants abound in the warm regions of tropical America, and 
afford a cooling acid beverage to the thirsty traveler when springs dry up 
under the torrid sun. 

228. The vine is either herbaceous or woody. It is 
a stem too slender and weak to stand erect, but trails 
along the ground, or any convenient support. Some- 
times, by means of special organs for this purpose, 
called tendrils, it ascends trees and other objects to a 
great height ; as the Grape, Gourd, and other climb- 
ing vines. 

229. The twining vine having also a length greatly disproportioned to its 
diameter, supports itself on other plants or objects by entwining itself around 
them, being destitute of tendrils. Thus the Hop ascends into the air by for- 
eign aid, and it is a curious fact that the direction of its winding is always 
the same, viz., with the sim, from left to right; nor can any artificial training 
induce it to reverse its course. This is a general law among twining stems. 
Every individual plant of the same species revolves in the same direction, 
although opposite directions may characterize different species. Thus the 
Morning-Olory revolves always against the sun. 



92 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[78. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

FORMS OF SCALE-BEARING STEMS. 

230. The Scale-bearing stems are those forms 
which, with internodes partially or not at all developed, 
and generally clothed with scales for leaves, scarcely 
emerge from the soil. They are the creeper and rhi- 
zoma (developed), the crown, tuber, corm, and bulb 
(undeveloped). Their forms are singular, often dis- 
torted in consequence of their underground growth and 
the unequal development of the internodes. They 
commonly belong to perennial herbs, and the principal 
forms are described as follows ; but intermediate con- 
necting forms are very numerous, and often perplexing. 




257, Creeper of " Nimble Will " or Witch-grass ; a, Bud ; bb, bases of culms. 



231. The creeper is either subaerial or subterra- 
nean. In the former case, it is prostrate, running and 
rooting at every joint, and hardly distinguishable other- 
wise from leafy stems ; as the Twin-flower, the Par- 
tridge-berry. In the latter case, it is more commonly 
clothed with scales, often branching extensively, root- 
ing .at the nodes, exceedingly tenacious of life, extend- 



78, 79.] 



FORMS OF SCALE-BEARING STEMS. 



93 



ing horizontally in all directions beneath the soil, 
annually sending up from its terminal buds erect stems 
into the air. The Witch-grass is an example. Such 
plants are a sore evil to the garden. They can have 
no better cultivation than to be torn and cut to pieces 
by the spade of the angry gardener, since they are 
thus multiplied as many times as there are fragments. 

232. Repent stems of this kind are not, however, without their nse. They 
frequently abound in loose, sandy soil, which they serve to bind and secure 
against the inroads of the water and even the sea itself. Holland is said to 
owe its very existence to the repent stems of such plants as the Mat-grass 
(Arundo arenaria), Carex arenaria, and Elymus arenarius, which overrun the 
artificial dykes upon its shores, and by their innumerable roots and creepers 
apparently bind the loose sand into a firm barrier against the washing of the 
waves. So the turf, chiefly composed of repent Grass-stems, forms the only 
security of our own sandy or clayey hills against the washing rains. 




258, Rhizoma of Solomon's Seal (Polygonatum multiflorum). a, Fragment of the first year's growth ; 
b, the second year's growth ; c, growth of the third year ; d, growth of the present (fourth) year, bearing 
the stem, which, on decaying, will leave a scar (seal) like the rest. 259, Premorse root of Trillium erectum. 



233. The rhizome, or root-stock, differs from the 
creeper only in being shorter and thicker, having its 
internodes but partially developed. It is a prostrate, 
fleshy, rooting stem, either wholly or partially subter- 
ranean, often scaly with the bases of undeveloped 
leaves, or marked with the scars of former leaves, and 
yearly producing new shoots and roots. Such is the 
fleshy, horizontal portion of the Blood-root, Sweet-flag, 
Water-lily, and Bramble (the latter hardly different 
from the creeper). 



94 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[79, 80. 



234. The growth of the rhizome is instructive, marking its peculiar character. 
Each, joint marks the growth of a year. In Spring, the terminal bud unfolds 
into leaves and flowers, to perish in Autumn — a new bud to open the follow- 
ing Spring, and a new internode, with its roots, to abide several years. The 
number of joints indicates, not the age of the plant, but the destined age of 
each internode. Thus if there are three joints, we infer that they are trien- 
nial, perishing after the third season, while the plant still grows on. 

235. The pr^morse root, or root-stock, is short, 
erect, ending abruptly below, as if bitten square off 
(praemorsus). This is mostly owing to the death of 
the earlier and lower internodes in succession, as in 
the horizontal rhizome. The root of Scabious and the 
rhizomes of Yiola pedata and Benjamin-root are ex- 
amples. 

x 260 

261 




Tubers as they grow.— 260, The common Potato (Solarium). 261, Artichoke (Helianthus). 262, Sweet 

Potato (Convolvulus). 

236. Crown of the root designates a short stem 
with condensed internodes, remaining upon some per- 
ennial roots, at or beneath the surface-soil, after the 
leaves and annual stems have perished. 

237. The tuber is an annual thickened portion of 
a subterranean stem or branch, provided with latent 



. 



80, 81.] 



FORMS OF SCALE-BEAKIXG STEMS. 



95 



buds called eyes, from which new plants ensue the 
succeeding year. It is the fact of its origin with the 
ascending axis, and the production of buds, that places 
the tuber among stems instead of roots. The Potato 
and Artichoke are examples. 

238. The stem of the Potato-plant sends out roots from its base, and 
branches above, like other plants ; but we observe that its branches have two 
distinct modes of development. Those branches which rise into the air, 
whether issuing from the above-ground or the under-ground portion of the 
stem, expand regularly into leaves, etc. ; while those lower branches which 
continue to grope in the dark, damp ground, cease at length to elongate, 
swell up at the ends into tubers with developed buds and abundance of nutri- 
tious matter in reserve for renewed growth the following year. 




233, Corms of Putty-root (A plectrum) ; a, of last year — 6, of the present year. 264, Scale-bulb of White 
Lily. 265, Scale-bulb of Oxalis violacea. 



2 39. The corm is an under-ground, solid, fleshy 
stem, with condensed internodes, never extending, but 
remaining of a rounded form covered with thin scales. 
It is distinguished from roots by its leaf-bud, which is 
either borne at the summit, as in the Crocus, or at the 
side, as in the Colchicum and Putty-root (Aplectrum). 

240. The bulb partakes largely of the nature of 
the bud. It consists of a short, dilated axis, bearing 
an oval mass of thick, fleshy scales, closely packed 



96 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[81, 82. 



above, a circle of adventitious roots around its base, 
and a flowering stem from the terminal or a lateral bud. 




241. How multiplied. — Bulbs are renewed or multiplied annually at the 
approach of Winter by the development of bulbs from the axils of the scales, 
which increase at the expense of the 

old, and ultimately become detached. 
Bulbs which flower from the terminal 
bud are necessarily either annual or bi- 
ennial ; those flowering from an axillary 
bud may be perennial, as the terminal 
bud may in this case continue to de- 
velop new scales indefinitely. 

242. Bulbs are said to be 
tunicated when they consist 2 6,BuibofLiiiumsu P erbum, with habit of 

^ a rhizome ; a, full grown bulb sending up a ter- 

of concentric layers, each en- minal stem c ' and two offsets 66 > for the bulbs of 

d 7 next year. 

tire and inclosing all within 

it, as in the Onion. But the more common variety is 
the scaly bulb — consisting of fleshy, concave scales, 
arranged spirally upon the axis, as in the Lily 

243. The tuber, corm, and bulb are analogous forms approaching by 
degrees to the character of the bud, which consists of a little axis bearing a 
covering of scales. In the tuber, the axis is excessively developed, while the 
scales are reduced to mere linear points. In the corm the analogy is far more 
evident, for the axis is less excessive and the scales more manifest; and 
lastly, in the bulb the analogy is complete, or overdone, the scales often be- 
coming excessive. 




267, Corm of Crocus, with new ones forming above. 268, Vertical section of the same. 269, Section of 
bulb of Hyacinth, with terminal scape and axillary bulblet. 270, Section of bulb of Oxalis violacea, with 
axillary scapes. 



82, 83.] 



THE LEAF-BUB. 



97 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE LEAF-BUD. 

244. It is but a step from the study of the bulb to 
that of the leaf-bud. Buds are of two kinds in respect 
to their contents — the leaf-bud contain- 
ing the rudiments of a leafy stem or 
branch, the flower-bud containing the 
same elements transformed into the 
nascent organs of a flower for the 
purpose of reproduction. 

245. The leaf-bud consists of a 
brief, cone-shaped axis with a tender 
growing point, bearing a protecting 
covering of imbricated scales and in- 
cipient leaves. 

246. The leafy nature of the scales 
is evident from a careful inspection of 
such buds as those of the Rose, Cur- 
rant, Tulip-tree, when they are swollen 
or bursting in Spring. The student 
will notice a gradual change from the 
outer scales to the evident leaves or 
stipules within, as seen in Fig. 2 73. As 
a further protection against frost and Branch of Pear. 

r» -l • l i l • tree. The terminal hud a, 

ram, we find the scales sometimes haV ing been destroyed, an 

-,-,-. . , n . axillary hud supplied its 

clothed with hairs, sometimes var- pi aC e, and formed the axis 

. . . . . ., b. c, Thickened branch 

nished with resin. This is abundant with flower-buds ^branch 

-. p . -. with leaf -buds. 272, t, sec- 

and very aromatic m the buds or tne tkm of terminal bud ; ?, of 
Balm-of-Grilead and other Poplars. 

247. In regard to position, buds are either terminal 
or axillary, a distinction already noticed. Axillary 




98 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[83, 84. 



buds are especially noted as being either active or 
latent. In the 'former case they are unfolded into 
branches at once, or in the Spring following their 
formation. But latent buds suspend their activities 
from year to year, or perhaps are never quickened 
into growth. Axillary buds become terminal so soon 
as their development fairly commences ; therefore 
each branch also has a terminal bud, and, like the 




273, Bud of Currant unfolding, — the scales gradually becoming lea-ves. 274, Bud of Tulip-tree, — the scales 

unfolding into stipules. 

main axis, is capable of extending its growth as long 
as that bud remains unharmed. If it be destroyed by 
violence or frost, or should it be transformed into a 
flower-bud, the growth in that direction forever 
ceases. 

248. The suppression of axillary buds tends to 
simplify the form of the plant. Their total suppres- 
sion during the first year's growth of the terminal 
bud is common, as in the annual stem of Mullein and 
in most perennial stems. When axillary buds remain 
permanently latent, and only the terminal bud unfolds 
year after year, a simple, branchless trunk, crowned 



83-85.] 



THE LEAF-BUD. 



99 



with a solitary tuft of leaves, is the result, as in the 
Palmetto of our southern borders. 

249. A partial suppression of buds occurs in almost all species, and gen- 
erally in some definite order. In plants with opposite leaves, sometimes one 
bud of the pair at each node is developed and the other is suppressed, as in 
the Pink tribe. "When both buds are developed, the branches, appearing in 
pairs like arms, are said to be brachiate, as in the Labiates.- In many trees 
the terminal buds are arrested by inflo- 
rescence each season, and the growth 
is continued by axillary buds alone, as 
in the Catalpa and Horse-chestnut. 
In all trees, indeed, buds are sup- 
pressed more or less, from various 
causes, disguising at length the in- 
tended symmetry of the branches, to 
the utter confusion of twigs and spray. 

250. Accessory buds, one 
or more, are sometimes 
found just above the true 
axillary bud, or clustered 
with it, and only distin- 
guished from it by their 
smaller size ; as in the 
Cherry and Honeysuckle. 

251. Adventitious or ac- 
cidental buds are such as 
are neither terminal nor 
axillary. They occasionally 
appear on any part of the plant in the internodes of 
the stem or branches, on the root or even the leaves. 
Such buds generally result from some abnormal con- 
dition of the plant, from pruning or other destruction 
of branches or stem above, while the roots remain in- 
full vigor ; thus destroying the equilibrium of vital 
force between the upper and lower axis. The leaf of 
the Walking-fern emits rootlets and buds at its apex ; 
the leaf of Bryophyllum from its margin, each bud 




275, Hypericum Savothra, with brachiate 
branches. 276, Pink (Dianthus)— axillary buds 
alternately suppressed. 



100 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[85. 



here also preceded by a rootlet. Some plants are thus 
artificially propagated in conservatories from the influ- 
ence of heat and moisture on a leaf or the fragment 
of a leaf, as Begonia. 

252. Vernation or praefoliation are terms denoting 
the mode of arrangement and folding of the leaf 
organs composing the bud. This arrangement is defi- 
nitely varied in different orders of plants, furnishing 
useful distinctions in systematic botany. It may be 
studied to excellent advantage by making with a keen 
instrument a cross-section of the bud in its swollen 
state, just before expansion ; or it may be well ob- 
served by removing one by one the scales. The Forms 
of Vernation are entirely analogous to those of ^Esti- 
vation, and denoted by similar terms. 

253. Vernation is considered in two different as- 
pects — first, the manner in which the leaf itself is 
folded ; second, the arrangement of the leaves in re- 
spect to each other. This depends much upon the 
Phyllotaxy. (§ 2 61.) 




Vernation, 277, of Oak leaf ; 278, of Liriodendron (Tulip-tree). 279, of Fern ; 280, of Carex ; 281, Sage ; 

282, Iris. 

254. Each leaf considered alone is either flat and 
open, as in the Mistletoe, or it is folded or rolled, as 
follows : viz., Reclined, when folded crosswise, with 
apex bent over forward toward the base, as in the 
Tulip-tree ; Conduplicate, when folded perpendicularly, 



85, 86.] 



THE LEAF-BUD. 



101 






with the lateral halves brought together face to face, 
as in the Oak; Plaited, or Plicate, each leaf folded 
like a fan, as in Birch. 

255. Circinate implies that each leaf is rolled or 
coiled downward from the apex, as in Sundew and 
the Ferns. 

256. The Convolute leaf is wholly rolled up from 
one of its sides, as in the Cherry; while the Involute 
has both its edges rolled inward, as in Apple, Violet ; 
and the Revolute has both margins rolled outward and 
backward, as in the 
Dock, Willow, Rosemary. 





Vernation, 283, of Birch leaf ; 284, of Lilac (imbricate) : 285, Cherry leaves (convolute) ; 286, Dock bud 
(revolute.) ; 287, Balm of Gilead (involute). 

257. The general vernation is loosely distinguished 
in descriptive botany as valvate (edges meeting), and 
imbricate (edges overlapping), terms to be noticed 
hereafter. The valvate more often occurs in plants 
with opposite leaves ; as in the St. John's-wort family, 
Hypericum Sarothra (2 75). 

258. Imbricate vernation is Equitant (riding astrad- 
dle), when conduplicate leaves alternately embrace — 
the outer one the next inner by its unfolded margins, 
as in the Privet and Iris (282). It is Obvolute when 
it is half-equitant ; that is, the outer leaf embraces 
only one of the margins of the inner, as in the Sage 
(281). Again, it is Triquetrous where the bud is tri- 
angular in section and the leaves equitant at each 
angle, as in the Sedges (280). 



102 



STRUCTURAL BOTAKY. 



[86, 87. 



259. The -principle of budding. 
may be regarded as a dis- 
tinct individual, capable 
of vegetating either in its 
native position, or when 
removed to another, as is 
extensively practiced in 
the important operation 
of budding. 

260. Bulblets. — In the Tiger-lily, 
also in Cicuta bulbif era, and Aspidium 
bulbiferum, the axillary buds sponta- 
neously detach themselves, fall to the 
ground, and become new plants. These 
little bodies are called bulblets. 



Each leaf-bud 




290, Showing the process 
of "budding. 1 ' 



remarkable 



CHAPTER XIX. 



PHYLLOTAXY, OR LEAF-ARRANOEMENT. 



261. As the position of the leaf upon the stem 
marks the position of the axillary bud, it follows that 
the order of the leaf-arrangement will be the order of 
the branches also. Phyllotaxis, or leaf-arrangement 
(from fyvXXov, leaf, rd&g, order), depends chiefly on the 
mode of origin of the leaves at the apex of growth, 
and on the subsequent elongation and twisting of the 
axis on which they grow. 

262. In regard to position, leaves are radical when 
they grow out of the stem at or beneath the surface 
of the ground, so as to appear to grow from the roots ; 
cauline, when they grow from the stem ; and ramal 



87, 88.1 



LEAF-ARRANGEMEXT. 



103 



{ramus, a branch), when from the branches. Their 
arrangement on the axis is according to the following 
general modes : 

Alternate, one above another on opposite sides, as 
in the Elm. 

Scattered, irregularly spiral, as in the Potato vine. 

Rosulate, clustered regularly, like the petals of a 
Rose, as in the Plantain and Shepherd's-purse. 




291, Lady's-slipper (leaves alternate): 292, Synandra grandiflora (leaves opposite) ; 294, Medeola Virginica 
(leaves verticillate) ; 293. Larix Americana (leaves fasciculate). 

Fasciculate, tufted, clustered many together in the 
axil, as seen in the Pine, Larch, Berberry. 

Opposite, two, against each other, at the same node. 
Ex., Maple. - When successive pairs of opposite leaves 
cross each other at right angles, they are said to be 
decussate. 

Verticillate, or whorled, more than two in a circle 
at each node, as in the Meadow-lily, Trumpet-weed. 
We may reduce all these modes to two general types, 



104 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [88,89. 

— the alternate, including all cases with one leaf at 
each node ; the opposite, including cases with two or 
more leaves at each node. 

263. The character of the alternate type of leaf- 
arrangement is sometimes represented by a spiral, 
which was at one time supposed to be invariable. 
This generating spiral, as it was called, is illustrated 
by Figures 2 95-300. Take a straight leafy shoot or 
stem of the Elm or Flax, or any other plant with seem- 
ingly scattered leaves, and beginning with the lowest 
leaf, pass a thread to the next above, thence to the 
next in the same direction, and so on by all the 
leaves to the top ; the thread will form a regular 
spiral. 

264. The Elm cycle. — In the strictly alternate 
arrangement (Elm, Linden, Grasses) the spiral thread 
makes one complete circuit and commences a new one 
at the third leaf. The third leaf stands over the first, 
the fourth over the second, and so on, forming two 
vertical rows of leaves. Here (calling each complete 
circuit a cycle) we observe, first, that this cycle is 
composed of two leaves ; second, that the angular 
distance between its leaves is | a circle (180°) ; 
third, if we express this cycle mathematically by f, 
the numerator (1) will denote the turns or revolu- 
tions, the denominator (2) its leaves, and the frac- 
tion itself the angular distance between the leaves 
(i of 360°). 

265. The Alder cycle. — In the Alder, Birch, Sedges, 
etc., the cycle is not complete until the fourth leaf is 
reached. The fourth leaf stands over the first, the 
fifth over the second, etc., forming three vertical rows. 
Here call the cycle | ; 1 denotes the turns, 3 the 



LEAF-ARKAXGEMENT. 



105 



leaves, and the fraction itself the angular distance 
(| of 360°). 

2 66. The Cherry cycle. — In the Cherry, Apple, 
Peach, Oak, Willow, etc., neither the third nor the 
fourth leaf, but the sixth, stands over the first ; and 
in order to reach it the thread makes tivo turns 
around the stem. This arrangement is very frequent ; 
but more or less disguised by the torsions which the 
axis experiences in process of growth. 





205, 296, 297, Showing the course of the spiral thread and the order of the leaf-succession in the axes of 
Elm, Alder, and Cherry. 29S, Axis of Osage-orauge with a section of the hark peeled, displaying the order 
of the leaf-scars ("cycle %)• 



267. In the Osage-orange, the Holly, and some 
other plants, the attempt has been made to find 
spirals of a higher order. 

268. In the leaves of House-leek and the cones of 
Pine-trees the number of members is very large. 

269. The common arrangement is represented by 
a series of fractions, each fraction indicating the pro- 
portion borne by the angular divergence to the entire 
circumference. Thus f, for the Cherry, indicates that 
the angular divergence between successive leaves is 



106 



STRUCTUKAL BOTANY. 



[90, 91. 



two fifths of a circle, or 144°. It also shows that in 
following the spiral from any particular leaf to one 
directly above it, yon must go round the stem twice 
and pass to the fifth leaf above, and that there are 
five orthostichies or vertical rows of leaves (Fig. 297). 





19, Phyllotaxy of the cone (cycle ^ 8 T ) of Pinus serotina. The scales are numbered (1, 2, 3, etc.) in 
order as they occur in the formative cycle. Between 1 and 22 are 8 turns and 21 scales, etc. 300, 
Cherry cycle (g) as viewed from above, forming necessarily that kind of aestivation called quincuncial. 

2 70. It is now known that the angle of divergence 
varies in different regions of the same shoot ; and 
that frequently a shoot beginning with a simple ar- 
rangement, afterward passes on to a more compli- 
cated pattern. 






CHAPTER XX, 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 

2 71. The leaf constitutes the verdure of plants, and 
is by far the most conspicuous and beautiful object in 
the scenery of nature. It is also of the highest im- 
portance in the vegetable economy, being the organ 
of digestion and respiration. It is characterized by a 






91,92.] MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 107 

thin and expanded form, presenting the largest possible 
surface to the action of the air and light, which agents 
are indispensable to the life and increase of the plant. 
The leaf may be regarded as an expansion of the 
substance of the stem, extended into a broad thin 
plate by means of a woody frame-work or skeleton, 
connected with the inner part of the axis. The ex- 
panded portion is called the lamina or blade of the 
leaf, and it is either sessile, that is, attached to the 
stem by its base, or it is petiolate, attached to the 
stem by a footstalk called the petiole. 

272. The regular petiole very often bears at its 
base a pair of leaf-like appendages, more or less ap- 
parent, called stipules. Leaves so appendaged are said 
to be stipulate; otherwise they are exstipulate. 

273. Therefore a complete leaf consists of three 
distinct parts — the lamina or blade, the petiole, and 
the stipules. These parts are subject to endless trans- 
formations. Either of them may exist without the 
others, or they may all be transformed into other 
organs, as pitchers, spines, tendrils, and even into the 
organs of the flower, as will hereafter appear. 

2 74. The Petiole in form is rarely cylindrical, but 
more generally flattened or channeled on the upper 
side. When it is flattened in a vertical direction, it is 
said to be compressed, as in the Aspen or Poplar. In 
this case, the blade is very unstable, and agitated by 
the least breath of wind. The winged petiole is flat- 
tened or expanded into a margin, but laterally instead 
of vertically, as in the Orange. Sometimes the margins 
outrun the petioles, and extend down the stem, mak- 
ing that winged, or alate, also. Such leaves are said 
to be decurrent (decurro, run down). Ex., Mullein. 



108 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[92. 



2 75. The amplexicaul petiole is dilated at the base 
into a margin which surrounds or clasps the stem, as 
in the Umbellifers. Frequently we find the stem- 
clasping margins largely developed, constituting a 
sheath — with free edges in the Grasses, or closed into 
a tube in the Sedges. 

276. The petiole is simple in the simple leaf, but 
compound or branched in the compound leaf, with as 
many branches (petiolules) as there are divisions of 
the lamina. A leaf is simple when its blade consists 
of a single piece, however cut, cleft, or divided ; and 
compound when it consists of several distinct blades, 
supported by as many branches of a compound petiole. 




301, Rose leaf, odd -pinnate, with adnate stipules. 302, Violet (V. tricolor), with simple leaf (?), and free 

compound stipules. 

277. Stipules are certain leaf-like expansions, al- 
ways in pairs, situated one on each side of the petiole 
near the base. They do not occur in every plant, but 
are pretty uniformly present in each species of the 
same natural order. In substance and color they usu- 
ally resemble the leaf ; sometimes they are colored like 
the stem, often they are membranous and colorless. 
In the Palmetto the leaf-base is a coarse net-work 
resembling canvas. 

2 78. Stipules are often adnate, or adherent to the 
petiole, as in the Rose ; more generally they are free, 



92, 93.] 



MORPHOLOG-Y OF THE LEAF. 



109 



as in the Pea and Pansy. In these cases and others 
they act the part of leaves ; again they are often very 
small and inconspicuous. 

2 79. An Ochrea is a membranous sheath inclosing 
the stem from the node upward, as in the Knot-grass 
family (Polygonacese). It is formed of the two stipules 




303, Leaf of Selinum, tripinnate, with sheathing petiole. 304, Leaf of Polygonum Pennsylvanicum, 
with its (o) ochrea. 305, Culm of Grass, with joint (j), leaf (l\ ligule ( s). 306, Leaf of Pear-tree, with 
slender stipules. 

cohering by their two margins. In case the two stip- 
ules cohere by their outer margin only, a double stip- 
ule is formed opposite to the leaf, as in the Button- 
wood. If they cohere by their inner margin, the 
double stipule appears in the leaf axil, as in the Pond- 
weed (Potamogeton). The Ligule of the Grasses is 
generally regarded as a double axillary stipule. The 
leaflets of compound leaves are sometimes furnished 
with little stipules, called stipels. 

280. Inter--petiolcLv stipules occur in a few opposite- 
leaved tribes, as the Galium tribe. Here we find them 
as mere bristles in Diodia, while in Galium they look 
like the leaves, forming whorls. Such whorls, if com- 
plete, will be apparently 6-leaved, consisting of two 
true leaves and four stipules. But the adjacent 
stipules are often united, and the whorl becomes 
4-leaved, and in some the whorl is 8-leaved. 



110 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [93, 94. 

281. Stipules are often fugacious, existing as scales 
in the bud, and falling when the leaves expand, or 
soon after, as in the Magnolia and Tulip-tree. 

282. Nature of veins. — The blade of the leaf con- 
sists of, (1) the frame-work, and (2) the tissue com- 
monly called the parenchyma. The frame-work is 
made up of the branching vessels of the footstalk, 
which are woody tubes pervading the parenchyma, and 
conveying nourishment to every part. Collectively, 
these vessels are called veins, from the analogy of 
their functions. Venation is the division and distribu- 
tion of the veins. The several organs of venation, 
differing from each other only in size and position, 
may be termed the midvein, veins, veinlets, and veinu- 
lets. (The old terms, midrib and nerves, being ana- 
tomically absurd, are here discarded.) 

283. The Midvein is the principal axis of the vena- 
tion, or prolongation of the petiole, running directly 
through the lamina, from base to apex, as seen in the 
leaf of the Oak or Birch. If there be several similar 
divisions of the petiole, radiating from the base of the 
leaf, they are appropriately termed Veins ; and the leaf 
is said to be three-veined, five-veined, as in Maple. 
The primary branches sent off from the midvein or 
the veins we may term the Veinlets, and the second- 
ary branches, or those sent off from the veinlets, are 
the Veinulets. These also branch and subdivide until 
they become too small to be <seen. 

284. Botanists distinguish three modes of venation, 
which are in general characteristic of three Grand 
Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom — viz. : 

Reticulate or Net-veined, as in the Dicotyledons 
(called also Exogens). This kind of venation is char- 



94,95.] MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. Ill 

acterized by the frequent reunion or inosculation of 
its numerously branching veins, so as to form a kind 
of irregular net-work. 



Va) ieties of venation . — 307, Feather-veined, — leaf of Betula populifolia ("White Birch\ lying upon a leaf 
of Plum-tree ; same venation with different outlines. 3 8, Palmate-veined,— leaf of White Maple, con- 
trasted with leaf of Cercis Canadensis. 309, Parallel venation, — plant of "three-leaved Solomon's seal" 
(Smilacina trifoliata). 310, Forked venation,— Climbing Fern (Lygodiuni). 

Parallel-veined, as in the Monocotyledons (called 
also Exdogexs). The veins, whether straight or curved, 
run parallel, or side by side, to the apex of the leaf or 
to the margin, and are connected by simple transverse 
veinlets hardly seen. 

Fork-veined, as in the Ferns (and other Cryptogams 
where veins are present at all). Here the veins divide 
and subdivide in a forked manner, and do not reunite. 

2 85. Of the Reticulate venation the student should 
carefully note three leading forms : viz., The Feather- 
veined (pinni-veined) leaf is that in which the venation 
consists of a midvein giving off at intervals lateral 
•veinlets and branching veinulets, as in the leaf of 



112 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [95, 96. 

Beech, Chestnut. In the Radiate-veined (palmi-veined) 
leaf, the venation consists of several veins of nearly 
equal size radiating from the base toward the circum- 
ference, each with its own system of veinlets. Ex., 
Maple, Crowfoot. Lastly, the Tripli-veined seems to 
be a form intermediate between the two former, where 
the lowest pair of veinlets are conspicuously stronger 
than the others, and extend with the midvein toward 
the summit (see Fig. 319). 

286. In parallel-veined venation the veins are either 
straight, as in the linear leaf of the Grasses ; curved, 
as in the oval leaf of the Orchis ; or transverse, from 
a midvein, as in the Canna, Calla, etc. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF — CONTINUED. 

287. That infinite variety of beautiful and graceful 
forms for which the leaf is distinguished becomes 
intelligible to the student only when viewed in con- 
nection with its venation. Since it is through the 
veins alone that nutriment is conveyed for the devel- 
opment and extension of the parenchyma, it follows 
that there will be the greatest extension of outline 
where the veins are largest and most numerous. Con- 
sequently the form of the leaf will depend upon the 
direction of the veins and the vigor of their action in 
developing the intervening tissue. In accordance with 
this theory, leaf-forms will be classed in respect to 
their venation. 

288. Feather-veined leaves. — Of these, the follow- 
ing forms depend upon the length of the veinlets hi 



96, 97.] 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 



113 



relation to each other and to the midvein. When the 
lower veinlets are longer than the others, the form of 
the blade will be (1) ovate, with the outline of an egg, 
the broad end at the base ; (2) lanceolate, or lance- 
shaped, narrower than ovate, tapering gradually up- 
ward ; (3) deltoid, or triangular-shaped, like the Greek 
letter A. 




Forms of leaves.— 311, Rhododendron maximum. 312, Alnus glutinosa (cult.). 313, Polygonum dum- 
etorum. 314. Papaw. 315, Impatiens fulva. 316, Celtis Americana. 317, Circeea Lutetiana. 318, Cat- 
mint. 319, Solidago Canadensis — a tripli-veined leaf. 

289. If the middle veinlets exceed the others in 
length, the leaf will be (4) orbicular, roundish, or quite 
circular; (5) elliptical, with the outline of an ellipse, 
nearly twice longer than broad ; (6) oval, broadly 
elliptical; (7) oblong, narrowly elliptical. 

2 90. When the veinlets are more largely developed 
in the upper region of the leaf, its form becomes (8) 
obovate, inversely ovate, the narrow end at base ; (9) 
oblanceolate, that is, lanceolate with the narrow end at 
base; (10) spatulate, like a spatula, with a narrow base 
and a broader, rounded apex; (11) cuneate or cunei- 
form, shaped like a wedge with the point backward. 



Ill 



STRUCTURAL BOTAKY. 



[97, 98. 



291. Again: if the lowest pair of veinlets are length- 
ened and more or less recurved, the leaf will be vari- 




6 5 7 11 10 9 8 

320-330, Diagrams of pinnate-veined leaf-forms. 

ously modified in respect to its base, becom- 
ing (334) cordate, or heart-shaped, an ovate 
outline with a sinus or re-entering angle at 
base; (331) auriculate, with ear-shaped lobes 
at base; (33 7) sagittate, arrow-shaped, with the lobes 
pointed, and directed backward; (332) hastate, halbert- 
shaped, the lobes directed outward. 





331 332 333 

Farms of leaves. — 330, Silene Virginica. 331, Magnolia Fraseri. 336, Arabis dentata. 337, Polygonum 
sagittatum. 332, Hepatica acutiloba. 333, Asarum Virginicum. 334, Hydrocotyle Americana. 335, H. 
umbellata. 

292. Pinnatifid forms. — The following pinnate- 
veined forms, approaching the compound leaf, depend 
less upon the proportion of the veinlets than upon the 



98.] 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 



115 



relative development of the intervening tissue. The 
prefix pinnate is obviously used in contrast with 
palmate among palmate-veined forms. 

293. Pinnatifid {pinna, feather, findo, to cleave), 
feather-cleft, the tissue somewhat sharply cleft between 
the veinlets about half-way to the midvein, forming 
oblong segments. When the segments of a pinnatifid 
leaf are pointed and curved backward, it becomes run- 
cinate, i. e., re-uncinate (346). "When the terminal seg- 
ment of a pinnatifid leaf is orbicular in figure and 
larger than any other, presenting the form of the 
ancient lyre, the form is termed lyrate (340). 




338 340 



Feather -veined leaves, approaching the compound. — 338, Quercus imbricaria — undulate. 339, Q. alba 
(White Oak) — lobate-sinuate. 340, Q. macrocarpa — lyrate. 341, Mulgedium (Milkweed). 342, Bipinnatifid 
leaf of Ambrosia artemisifolia (Hogweed). 

294. Pinnately parted implies that the incisions are 
deeper than pinnatifid, nearly reaching the midvein. 
In either case the leaf is said to be sinuate when the 
incisions (sinuses) as well as the segments are rounded 
and flowing in outline. Such segments are lobes, and 
the leaves lobate or lobed, a very generic term. 

295. Palmate forms. —The palmate venation pre- 
sents us with a set of forms which are, in general, 



116 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[98, 99. 



broader in proportion than the pinnate, having the 
breadth about equal to the length. Such a leaf may 
be rarely broadly ovate, or broadly cordate, terms which 
require no further explanation. Or it may be Benin 
form, kidney-shaped, having a flowing outline broader 
than long, concave at base ; or Peltate, shield-form, the 
petiole not inserted at the margin, but in the midst 







Feather-veined leaves approaching the compound.— -343, Nigella (pinnatisect). 344, Cheledonium majus. 
345, Thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum). 346, Dandelion (runcinate-lyrate). 

of the lower surface of the blade. This singular form 
evidently results from the blending of the base lobes 
of a deeply cordate leaf, as seen in Hydrocotyle. It 
may be orbicular, oval, etc. 

2 96. The following result from deficiency of tissue, 
causing deep divisions between the veins. Leaves thus 
dissected are said to be palmately-lobed when either 
the segments or the sinuses are somewhat rounded and 
continuous. The number of lobes is denoted by such 
terms as bilobate, trilobate, five-lobed, etc. Leaves are 



99, 100.] 



MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 



117 




Palmate-veined leaves. — 347, Menisperrnum Canadense. 34S, Passiflora cerulea. 349, Broussonetia pa- 
pyrifera. 350, Oak Geranium. 

palmately cleft and palmately parted, according to the 

depth of the incisions as above described. But the 

most peculiar modification is the 

Pedate, like a bird's foot, having 

the lowest pair of veins enlarged, 

recurved, and bearing each several 

of the segments (3-18). 

29 7. The forms of the paral- 
lel-veined leaves are remarkable 
for their even, flowing outlines, 
diversified solely by the direction 
and curvature of the veins. When 
the veins are straight, the most 
common form is the Linear, long 
and narrow, with parallel margins, 
like the leaves of the Grasses — a 
form which may also occur in the 
pinnate-veined leaf, when the vein- 
lets are all equally shortened. The 
ensiform, or sword-shaped, is also 
linear, but has its edges vertical, 
that is, directed upward and down- 
ward. 

2 98. If the veins curve, we may have the lanceolate, 




353 



352 



551, Ensiform leaves of Iris. 352, 
Acerose leaves of Pinus. 353, Subu- 
late leaves of Juniperus communis. 



118 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [100,101. 

elliptical, or even orbicular forms ; and if the lower 
curve downward, the cordate, sagittate, etc. Palmate 
forms there also are, splendidly developed in the Pal- 
metto and other Palms, whose large leaves are appro- 
priately called flabelliform (fan-shaped). 

299. The leaves of the Pine and the Fir tribe (Coni- 
ferae) generally are parallel-veined also, and remark- 
able for their contracted forms, in which there is no 
distinction of petiole or blade. Such are the Acerose 
(needle-shaped) leaves of the Pine, the Subulate (awl- 
shaped) and scale-form leaves of the Cedars, etc. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

THE COMPOUND LEAF, ETC. 

300. If we conceive of a simple leaf becoming a 
compound one, on the principle of " deficiency of tissue 
between the veins," it will be evident that the same 
forms of venation are represented by the branching 
petioles of the latter as by the veins of the former. 
The number and arrangement of the parts will there- 
fore in like manner correspond with the mode of 
venation. 

301. The divisions of a compound leaf are called 
leaflets; and the same distinction of outline, margin, 
etc., occur in them as in simple leaves. The petiolules 
of the leaflets may or may not be articulated to the 
main petiole, or rachis, as it is called. 

302. Pinnately compound. — From the pinnate-veined 
arrangement we may have the pinnate leaf, where the 
petiole (midvein) bears a row of leaflets on each side, 
either sessile or petiolulate, generally equal in number 



101, 102.] 



THE COMPOUND LEAF. 



119 



and opposite. It is unequally pinnate (357) when the 
rachis bears an odd terminal leaflet, and equally pin- 
nate (356) when there is no terminal leaflet, and inter- 
ruptedly pinnate when the leaflets are alternately large 
and small (358). 

303. The number of leaflets in the pinnate leaf 
varies from thirty pairs and upward (as in some Aca- 
cias), down to three, when the leaf is said to be ter- 
nate or trifoliate ; or two, becoming Innate / or finally 




Compound leaves —354, Trifolium repens. 355, Desmodium rotundifolium. 356, Sesbania. 357, Cassia. 

358, Agrimonia. 

even to one leaflet in the Lemon. Such a leaf is theo- 
retically compound, on account of the leaflet (blade) 
being articulated to the petiole. 

304. A bipinnate leaf (twice pinnate) is formed 
when the rachis bears pinnce or secondary pinnate 
leaves, instead of leaflets (361), and tripinnate (thrice 
pinnate) when pinnae take the places of the leaflets of 
a bipinnate leaf (3 60). When the division is still more 
complicated, the leaf is decompound. Different degrees 
of division often exist in different parts of the same 



120 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[102, 103. 



leaf, illustrating the gradual transition of leaves from 
simple to compound in all stages. The leaves of 
the Honey-locust and Coffee-tree (Q-ymnocladus) often 
afford curious and instructive examples (362). 

305. A biter nate leaf is formed when the leaflets 
of a ternate leaf give place themselves to ternate 
leaves (359), and triternate when the leaflets of a 
biternate leaf again give place to ternate leaves. 




Compound leaves. — 359, Clematis. 360, Erigenia bulbosa. 361, Acacia. 362, Honey -locust. 

306. Palmately compound. — The palmate venation 
has also its peculiar forms of compound leaves, as ter- 
nate, quinate, septenate, etc., according to the number 
of leaflets which arise together from the summit of 
the petiole. Ternate leaves of this venation are to be 
carefully distinguished from those of the pinnate plan. 
The palmately ternate leaf consists of three leaflets, 
which are either all sessile or stalked alike ; the pin- 
nately ternate has the terminal leaflet raised above the 
other two on the prolonged rachis (354, 355). 

307. Apex. — In regard to the termination of a leaf 
or leaflet at its apex, it may be acuminate, ending 



103, 104.] 



THE COMPOUND LEAF. 



121 



with a long, tapering point ; cuspidate, abruptly con- 
tracted to a sharp, slender point ; mucronate, tipped 
with a spiny point ; acute, simply ending with an 
angle ; obtuse, rounded at the point. Or the leaf may 




363, Lemon. 364, Jeffevsonia. 355, Potentilla anserina. 



P. tridentata. 



end without a point, being truncate, as if cut square 
off ; retuse, with a rounded end slightly depressed 
where the point should be ; emarginate, having a small 
notch at the end ; obcordate, inversely heart-shaped, 
having a deep indentation at the end. 




375 



367-375, Apex of leaves.— a, obcordate ; b, emarginate ; c, retuse ; d, truncate ; c, obtuse ; /, acute ; g, 
mucronate ; A, cuspidate : ft, acuminate. 

376-380, Bases of leaves. —I, hastate : m, n, sagittate ; o, auriculate; p, cordate ; q, reniform. 

308. Margin. — The following terms are used to 
define the margin of the leaf or leaflet, with no refer- 
ence to the general form. If the leaf be even-edged, 
having the tissue completely filled out, the appropriate 
term is entire. Sometimes a vein runs along such a 
margin as if a hem. 



122 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[104. 



309. But when the marginal tissue is deficient, the 
leaf becomes dentate, having sharp teeth pointing out- 
ward from the center ; serrate, with sharp teeth point- 
ing forward, like the teeth of a saw ; crenate, with 
rounded or blunt teeth. The terms denticulate, serru- 
late, crenulate denote finer indentations of the several 
kinds ; doubly dentate, etc., denote that the teeth are 
themselves toothed. 




381, Serrate leaf of Chestnut. 382, Doubly serrate leaf of Elm. 383, Dentate leaf of Arrow-wood. 384, 
Crenate leaf of Catmint. 385, Repand leaf of Circaea. 386, Undulate leaf of Shingle Oak. 387, Lobed 
leaf of Chrysanthemum. 

310. The undulate, or wavy edge, is somewhat dif- 
ferent from the repand, which bends like the margin 
of an umbrella. If the veins project, and are tipped 
with spines, the leaf becomes spinous. Irregularly 
divided margins are said to be erose or jagged, lacini- 
ate or torn, incised or cut. Often, instead of a defi- 
ciency, there is a superabundance of marginal tissue, 
denoted by the term crispate or crisped. 

311. Insertion. — Several important terms descrip- 
tive of the various modes of leaf-insertion must here 









104, 105.] 



THE COMPOUND LEAF. 



123 



be noticed. A sessile leaf is said to be amplexieaul 
when its base-lobes adhere to and clasp the stem. 
Should these lobes extend quite around the stem and 
on the other side become blended together, a perfoliate 
leaf will be formed (per, through, folium, leaf), the 
stem seeming to pass through the leaves. When the 
bases of two opposite sessile leaves are so united as to 
form one piece of the two, they are said to be connate. 




Insertion of leaves. — 388, Aster laevis (amplexieaul). 389, Uvularia pcrfoliata. 390. Lonicera semper virens 

(connate). 



312. Surface. — The following terms are applicable 
to any other organs as well as leaves. In the quality 
of surface the leaf may be glabrous (smooth), destitute 
of all hairs, bristles, etc., or scabrous (rough), with 
minute, hard points, hardly visible. A dense coat of 
hairs will render the leaf pubescent when the hairs are 
soft and short; villous when they are rather long and 
weak ; sericeous, or silky, when close and satin-like ; 



124 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [105,106. 

such a coat may also be lanuginose, woolly ; tomen- 
tose, matted like felt ; or floccose, in soft, fleecy tufts. 

313. Thinly scattered hairs render the surface hir- 
sute when they are long ; pilose when short and soft ; 
hispid when short and stiff. The surface will be setose 
when beset with bristly hairs called setce ; and spinose 
when beset with spines, as in the Thistle and Horse- 
nettle. Leaves may also be armed with stinging hairs 
which are sharp and tubular, containing a poisonous 
fluid, as in Nettles and Jatropha stimulans (503). 

314. A pruinose surface is covered with a bluish- 
white waxy powder, called bloom, as in the Cabbage ; 
and a punctate leaf is dotted with colored points or 
pellucid glands. 

315. In texture leaves may be membranous, or 
coriaceous (leathery), or succulent (fleshy), or scarious 
(dry), rugose (wrinkled), etc., which terms need only 
to be mentioned. 

316. Double terms. —The modifications of leaves are almost endless. 
Many other terms are defined in the glossary, yet it will often be found neces- 
sary in the exact description of a plant to combine two or more of the terms 
defined in order to express some intermediate figure or quality ; thus ovate- 
lanceolate, signifying a form between ovate and lanceolate, etc. 

317. The Latin preposition sub (under) prefixed to a descriptive term 
denotes the quality which the term expresses, in a lower degree, as subsessile, 
nearly sessile, subserrate, somewhat serrate. 






CHAPTER XXIII. 

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 

318. Hitherto we have considered the leaf as foli- 
age merely — constituted the fit organ of aeration by 
its large expansion of surface. This is indeed the 
chief, but not the only aspect in which it is to be 
viewed. The leaf is a typical form; that is, ,a type, or 



106,107.] TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 125 

an idea of the Divine Architect, whence is derived 
the form of every other appendage of the plant. To 
trace out this idea in all the disguises under which it 
lurks, is one of the first aims of the botanist. Several 
of these forms of disguise have already been noticed 
— for example : 

319. The scales which clothe the various forms of 
scale-bearing stems are leaves, or more usually petioles, 
reduced and distorted, perhaps by the straitened cir- 
cumstances of their underground growth. The scales 
of corms and rhizomes are mostly mere membranes, 
while those of the bulb are fleshy, serving as deposi- 
tories of food for the future use of the plant. That 
these scales are leaves is evident — 1st, from their po- 
sition at the nodes of the stem ; 2d, from their occa- 
sional development into true leaves. Of the same 
nature are the brown scales of Winter buds. 

320. The cotyledons of seeds or seed-lobes are 
readily recognized as leaves, especially when they arise 
above-ground in germination, and form the first pair 
upon the young plant ; as in the Beechnut and Squash 
seed. Their deformity is due to the starchy deposits 
with which they are crammed for the nourishment of 
the embryo when germinating, and also to the way in 
which they are packed in the seed. 

321. Phyllodia are certain leaf-forms, consisting of 
petioles excessively compressed, or expanded vertically 
into margins^ while the true lamina is partly or en- 
tirely suppressed. Fine examples are seen in our 
greenhouse Acacias from Australia. Their vertical 
or edgewise position readily distinguishes them from 
true leaves. 

322. Ascidia, or pitchers, are surprising forms of 



126 



STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[107, 108. 



leaves, expressly contrived, as if by art, for holding 
water. The pitchers of Sarracenia, whose several spe- 
cies are common in bogs North and South, are evi- 
dently formed by the blending of the involute margins 
of the broadly winged petioles, so as to form a com- 
plete vase. The broad expansion which appears at the 
top may be regarded as the lamina. These pitchers 
contain water, in which insects are drowned, being 




391 

Ascidi'a. — 391, Nepenthes. 



392, Sarracenia psittacina. 393, S. purpurea. 394, S. Gronovii, /?. Drum- 
mondii. 395, Acacia heterophylla— its phyllodia. 



prevented from escaping by the deflexed hairs at the 
mouth. Other pitcher-bearing plants are equally curi- 
ous ; as Darlingtonia of California, Nepenthes and 
Dischidia of the East Indies. In Dionaea of North 
Carolina, the leaves are transformed to spiny, snapping 
fly-traps ! 

323. Many weak-stemmed water-plants are fur- 
nished with Air-bladders, or little sacks filled with air 
to buoy them up near to the surface. Such are the 
bladders of the common Bladderwort, formed from the 
leaf-lobes. In the Horned-bladderwort, the floats are 



108, 109.] 



TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 



127 



made of the six upper inflated petioles lying upon 
the surface of the water like a wheel-shaped raft 
and sustaining the flower upon its own elevated 
stalk. 

32-i. The Tendril is a thread-like, coiling append- 
age, furnished to certain weak-stemmed plants as their 
means of support in place. Its first growth is straight, 
and it remains so until it reaches some object, when 
it immediately coils itself about it, and thus acquires a 
firm though elastic hold. This beautiful appendage is 
finely exemplified in the Cucurbitaceae and Grape, 




S96, Leaf of Greenbrier, with tendrils in place of stipules. 397, Leaf ot Everlasting Pea— tendrils at end 
of rachis. 398, Leaf of Gloriosa — apex ends in a tendril. 399, Air-bladder of Horn Pondweed. 

above cited ; also in many species of the Pea tribe 
(Leguminosae), where it is appended to the leaves. It 
is not a new organ, but some old one transformed and 
adapted to a new purpose. In Gloriosa superba, the 
midvein of the leaf is prolonged beyond the blade into 
a coiling tendril. In the Pea, Vetch, etc., the tendrils 
represent the attenuated leaf-blades themselves. Again, 
the entire leaf sometimes becomes a tendril in Lathy- 
rus, while the stipules act as leaves. 

325. The petiole of the leaf of Clematis, otherwise 
unchanged, coils like a tendril for the support of the 
vine. In the Greenbrier, the stipules are changed to 
tendrils, which thus arise in pairs from the base of 
the petioles. So probably in the Gourd. 



128 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[109, 110. 



326. But the tendrils of the G-rape vine are of a different nature. Erom 
their position opposite the leaves, and the tubercles occasionally seen upon 
them, representing flower-buds, they are inferred to be abortive, or trans- 
formed flower-stalks. 

32 7. Many plants are armed, as if for self-defense 
with hard, sharp-pointed, woody processes, called spines 
or thorns. Those which are properly called spines 
originate from leaves. In Berberis the spines are evi- 
dently transformed leaves, as the same plant exhibits 




402 



Thorns — 100, Crataegus parvifolia (thorns axillary). 401, Honey -locust. 402, Common Locust, 

beris— a, a, its thorns. 



403, Ber- 



leaves in every stage of the metamorphosis. In Q-oat's- 
thorn (Astragalus tragacanthus) of S. Europe, the pet- 
ioles change to spines after the leaflets fall off. In 
the Locust (Robinia), there is a pair of spines at the 
base of the petiole, in place of stipules. 

328. Thorns originate from axillary buds, and are abortive branches. This 
is evident from their position in the Hawthorn and Osage-orange. The Apple 
and Pear tree in their wild state produce thorns, but by cultivation become 
thornless ; that is, the axillary buds, through better tillage, develop branches 
instead of thorns. The terrible branching thorns of the Honey-locust originate 
just above the axil, from accessory buds. Prickles differ from either spines or 
thorns, growing from the epidermis upon stems of leaves, at no determinate 
point, and consisting of hardened cellular tissues, as in the Rose, Bramble. 



110,111.] METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 129 

329. By a more gentle transformation, leaves pass 
into Bracts, which are those smaller, reduced leaf- 
forms situated near and among the flowers. So grad- 
ual is the transition from leaves to bracts — in the 
Peony, e. g. — that no absolute limits can be assigned. 
Equally gradual is the transition from bracts to sepals 
of the flower — affording a beautiful illustration of the 
doctrine cf metamorphosis (§ 330, etc.). Bracts will 
be further considered under the head of Inflorescence. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 

330. It has already been announced (§ 3 7) that a 
flower is a metamorphosed, that is, a transformed 
branch. No new principle or element was devised to 
meet this new necessity in the life of the plant, viz., 
the perpetuation of its kind ; but the leaf, that same 
protean form which we have already detected in 
shapes so numerous and diverse, the leaf, is yet once 
more in nature's hand molded into a series of forms 
of superior elegance, touched with colors more brilliant, 
and adapted to a higher sphere as the organs of repro- 
duction. 

331. Proofs of this doctrine appear on every hand, 
both in the natural and in the artificial development 
of plants. We mention a few instances. The thought- 
ful student will observe many more. 

332. In most flowers, as in the Poppy, very little 
evidence of the metamorphosis appears, simply because 
it has been so complete. Its sepals, petals, stamens, 
and pistils — how unlike ! Can these be of one and the 



130 



STEUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[111. 



same element ? Look again. Here is a double flower, 
a Poppy of the gardens, artificially developed ; its 
slender white stamens have indeed expanded into 
broad red petals ! 

333. The argument begins with the sepals. In the 
Rose and Paeony, and in most flowers, the sepals have 
all the characteristics of leaves — color, form, venation, 
etc. The transition from leaves to bracts and from 
bracts to sepals is so gradual as to place their identity 

406 







404, Papaver (poppy) — s, stamens; p, stigmas. 405, sepal. 406,'Petal — all very different. 407 to 414, 
Petals of the Water-lily (Nymphsea) gradually passing into stamens. 

beyond doubt. Again, in Calicanthus, the sepals pass 
by insensible gradations into petals ; and in the Lilies 
these two organs are almost identical. Hence, if the 
sepals are leaves, the petals are leaves also. In respect 
to the nature of the stamens, the Water-lily is partic- 
ularly instructive. Here we see a perfect gradation 
of forms from stamens to petals, and thence to sepals, 
where, half-way between the two former, we find a 
narrow petal tipped with the semblance of an anther 
(410). Finally, cases of close resemblance between 
stamen and pistil, so unlike in the Poppy, are not 
wanting. For example, the Tulip-tree. 

334. Teratology. — Cases in artificial development where organs of one 
kind are converted into those of another kind by cultivation, afford undeni- 
able evidence of the doctrine in question — the homology of all the floral organs 
with each other and ivith the leaf. Such cases are frequent in the garden, and, 



Ill, 112.] 



METAMOEPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 



131 



however much admired, they are monstrous, because unnatural. In all double 
flowers, as Rose, Pseony, Camellia, the stamens have been reconverted into 
petals, either wholly or partially, some yet remaining in every conceivable 
stage of the transition. In the double Buttercup t416) the pistils as well as 
stamens revert to petals, and in the garden Cherry, Flowering Almond, a pair 
of green leaves occupy the place of the pistils. By still further changes all 
parts of the flower manifest their foliage affinities, and the entire flower-bud, 
after having given clear indications of its floral character, is at last developed 
into a leafy branch (417). Further evidence of this view will appear in the — 





416 



415, Ranunculus acris ; a single flower. 416, R. acris, |3. plena, a double flower. 417, Epacris impressa, 
the flowers changing to leafy branches (Lindley). 

335. ^Estivation of the flower-bud. — This term 
(from csstivus, of summer) refers to the arrangement 
of the floral envelopes while yet in the bud. It is an 
important subject, since in general the same mode 
of aestivation regularly characterizes whole tribes or 
orders. It is to the flower-bud what vernation (vernus, 
spring) is to the leaf-bud. The various modes of aesti- 
vation are best observed in sections of the bud made 
by cutting it through horizontally when just ready to 
open. From such sections our diagrams are copied. 



132 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[112, 113. 



336. Separately considered, we find each organ 
here folded in ways similar to those of the leaf-bud ; 
that is, the sepal or the petal may be convolute, invo- 
lute, revolute, etc., terms already defined. Collectively 
considered, the aestivation of the flower occurs in four 
general modes with their variations — the valvate, the 
contorted, imbricate, and plicate. 

337. In valvate aestivation the pieces meet by their 
margins without any overlapping ; as in the sepals of 
the Mallow, petals of Hydrangea, valves of a capsule. 



422 




418 






418-425, Modes of aestivation. 424, Petals of the Wall-flower. 

The following varieties of the valvate occur : Indupli- 
cate, where each piece is involute — i.e., has its two 
margins bent or rolled inward, as in Clematis ; or redu- 
plicate, when each piece is revolute — having its mar- 
gins bent or rolled outward, as in the sepals of Althea. 

338. Contorted aestivation is where each piece over- 
laps its neighbor, all in the same direction, appearing 
as if twisted together, as in Phlox, Flax, Oleander (421). 

339. Imbricated aestivation {imbrex, a tile) is a term 
restricted to those modes in which one or more of the 
petals or sepals is wholly outside, overlapping two 
others by both its margins. This kind of aestivation 






113, 114.] 



METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 



133 



naturally results from the spiral arrangements so com- 
mon in phyllotaxy, while the valvate and contorted 
seem identified with the opposite or whorled arrange- 
ment. The principal varieties are the following : The 
Quincuncial, consisting of five leaves, two of which 
are wholly without, two wholly within, and one partly 
both, or one margin out, the other in, as in the Rose 
family (422). This accompanies the two fifths cycle in 
phyllotaxy, and corresponds precisely with it, each 
quincunx being in fact a cycle with its internodes 




Diagrams of flowers (as seen by cross-sections).— 426, Jeffersonia diphylla— o, ovary ; s, stamens ; d, inner 
row of petals, sestivation triquetrous ; 6, outer row of petals, aestivation contorted; c, sepals, aestivation 
quincuncial. 427, Lily. 428, Strawberry. 429, Mustard. The pupil will designate modes of aestivation. 

suppressed. (Fig. 300, § 266.) The Triquetrous, con- 
sisting of three leaves in each set, one of which is out- 
side, one inside, and the third partly both, as in Tulip, 
Erythronium, agreeing with the two thirds, or Alder 
Cycle (§ 265). The Convolute, when each leaf wholly 
involves all that are within it, as do the petals of Mag- 
nolia ; and lastly, the Vexillary, when one piece larger 
than the rest is folded over them, as in Pea (425). 

340. Plicate or folded sestivation occurs in tubular 
or monopetaloTis flowers, and has many varieties, of 
which the most remarkable is the supervolute, where 
the projecting folds all turn obliquely in the same 
direction, as in the Morning-glory, Thorn-apple. 

Different modes of sestivation may occur in the 
different whorls of the same flower. 



134 stkxjctubal botany. [114,115. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

INFLORESCENCE. 

341. Inflorescence is a term, denoting the arrange- 
ment of the flowers and their position upon the plant. 

All the buds of a plant are supposed to be originally of one and the same 
nature, looking to the production of vegetative organs only. But at a certain 
period, a portion of the buds of the living plant, by an unerring instinct little 
understood, are converted from their ordinary intention into flower-buds, as 
stated and illustrated in the foregoing Chapter. The flower-bud is incapable 
of extension. "While the leaf -bud may unfold leaf after leaf, and node after 
node, to an indefinite extent, the flower-bud blooms, dies, and arrests forever 
the extension of the axis which bore it. 
• 

342. In position and arrangement, flower-buds can 
not differ from leaf -buds, and both are settled by the 
same unerring law which determines the arrangement 
of the leaves. Accordingly, the flower-bud is always 
found either terminal or axillary. In either case, a 
single bud may develop either a compound inflores- 
cence, consisting of several flowers with their stalks 
and bracts, or a solitary inflorescence, consisting of a 
single flower. 

343. The Peduncle is the flower-stalk. It bears no 
leaves, or at least only such as are reduced in size and 
changed in form, called bracts. If the peduncle is 
wanting, the flower is said to be sessile. The simple 
peduncle bears a single flower ; but if the peduncle be 
divided into branches, it bears several flowers, and the 
final divisions, bearing each a single flower, are called 
pedicels. The main stem or axis of a compound 
peduncle is culled the rachis. 

344. The Scape is a flower-stalk which springs 
from a subterranean stem, in such plants as are called 



115, 116.] 



INFLORESCENCE. 



135 



stemless, or acaulescent ; as the Primrose, Tulip, Blood- 
root. Like the peduncle, it is leafless or with bracts 
only, and may be either simple or branched. The 
flower-stalk, whether peduncle, scape, or pedicel, always 
terminates in the torus (§ 57). 




Bracts (b, 6, b). — i30, Cornus Canadensis, with an involucre of four colored bracts. 431, Hepatica triloba, 
with an involucre of three green bracts. 432, Calla palustris, with a colored spathe of one bract. 



345. Bracts. — The branches of the inflorescence 
arise from the axils of reduced leaves, called bixicts. 
Those leaves, still smaller, growing upon the pedicels, 
are called bractlets. Bracts are usually simple in out- 
line and smaller than the leaf, often gradually dimin- 
ishing to mere points, as in Aster, or even totally sup- 
pressed, as in the Cruciferse. Often they are colored, 
sometimes brilliantly, as in Painted-cup. Sometimes 
they are scale-like, and again they- are evanescent 
membranes. 

346. The, Spathe is a large bract formed in some of 
the Monocotyledons, enveloping the inflorescence, and 
often colored, as in Arum, Calla ; or membranous, as 
in Onion and Daffodil. 

347. Bracts also constitute an Involucre when they 
are collected into a whorl or spiral group. In the 



136 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[116, 117. 



Phlox, Dodecatheon, and generally, the involucre is 
green, but sometimes colored and petaloid, as in Dog- 
wood and Euphorbia. Situated at the base of a com- 
pound umbel, it is called a general involucre ; at the 
base of a partial umbel it is a partial involucre or 
involucel, both of which are seen in the Umbelliferae. 




433, Helianthus grosse-serratus — ?, involucre ; r, rays, or ligulate flowers. 434, One of the disk-flowers 
with its chaff-scale (bract). 435, Acorn of Moss-cup Oak (Q. macrophylla). 436, Poa pratensis— /, spikelet 
entire ; g, glumes separated ; c, a flower separated, displaying the two pales, three stamens, and two styles. 

, 348. In the Oompositae, where the flowers are 
crowded upon a common torus, forming what is called 
a compound flower, an involucre composed of many 
imbricated scales (bracts) surrounds them as a calyx 
surrounds a simple flower. The chaff also upon the 
torus are bracts to which each floret is axillary (434). 

349. In the Grasses, the bracts subsist under the 
general name of chaff. At the base of each spikelet 
(436) of flowers we find two bracts — the Glumes. At 
the base of each separate flower in the spikelet are 
also two bractlets — the Pales — enveloping as a calyx 
the three stamens and two styles (c). 

350. The cup of the Acorn is another example of 
involucre, composed of many scale-like bractlets. So, 
also, perhaps the burr of the Chestnut, etc. 



117, 118.] INFLORESCENCE. 13 7 

351. The forms of inflorescence are exceedingly 
various, but may all be referred to two classes, as 
already indicated — the axillary, in which all the 
flowers arise from axillary buds ; the terminal, in 
which all the flower-buds are terminal. 

352. Axillary inflorescence is called indefinite, be- 
cause the axis, being terminated by a leaf-bud, con- 
tinues to grow on indefinitely, developing bracts with 
their axillary flowers as it grows. It is also called 
centripetal, because in the order of time the blossom- 
ing commences with the circumference (or base) of 
the inflorescence, and proceeds toward the central or 
terminal bud, as in Hawthorn or Mustard. 

353. Terminal inflorescence is definite, implying 
that the growth of the axis as well as of each branch 
is definitely arrested by a flower. It is also centrifu- 
gal, because the blossoming commences with the cen- 
tral flower and proceeds in order to the circumference, 
as in the Sweet-William, Elder, Hydrangea. 

354. Both kinds of inflorescence are occasionally combined in the same 
plant, where the general system may be distinguished from the partial clusters 
which compose it. Thus in the Conrpositse, v^hile the florets of each head 
open centripetally, the general inflorescence is centrifugal, that is, the termi- 
nal head is developed before the lateral ones. But in the Labiatse the partial 
clusters (verticillasters) open centrifugally, while the general inflorescence is 
indefinite, proceeding from the base upward. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE. 

355. Of centripetal or axillary inflorescence the 

principal varieties are : the spike, spadix, catkin, raceme, 
corymb, umbel, panicle, thyrse, and head. The spike 
is a long rachis with sessile flowers either scattered, 



138 



STEUCTUEAL BOTANY. 



[118. 



clustered, or crowded upon it, as Plantain, Mullein, 
Vervain. The so-called spikes of the Grasses are com- 




435-a, Spiranthes cernua — flowers in a twisted spike. 436-a, Orontium aquaticum — flowers on a naked 
spadix. 437, Betula lenta — flowers in aments. 

pound spikes or spike-like panicles, bearing little spikes 
or spikelets in place of single flowers (440). 




442 440 

438, Andromeda racemosa— flowers in a secund raceme. 439, Verbascum Blattaria— raceme. 440, Lo- 
lium perenne— a compound spike or a spike of spikelets. 441, Dipsacus sylvestris— head with an involucre 
of leaves. 442, Osmorhiza longistylis — a compound umbel. 443, Its fruit. 



119.] 



SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE. 



139 



356. The spadix is a thick, fleshy rachis, with 
flowers closely sessile or imbedded on it, and usually 
with a spathe, as in Oalla (4:32), or without it, as in 
Golden-club (436). 

357. The catkin or anient is a slender, pendent 
spike with scaly bracts subtending the naked, sessile 
flowers, all caducous (falling) together, as in Birch, 
Beech, Oak, Willow. 

358. The raceme is a rachis bearing its flowers on 
distinct, simple pedicels. It may be erect, as in Hya- 
cinth, Pyrola ; or pendulous, as in Currant, Black- 
berry. The corymb differs from the raceme in having 
the lower pedicels lengthened so as to elevate all the 
flowers to about the same level. The corymb often 
becomes compound by the branching of its lower 
pedicels, as in Yarrow. 




444 445 

444. Staphylea trifolia— a pendulous, paniculate cyme. 445, Catalpa— a panicle. 

359. An umbel consists of several pedicels of about 
equal length radiating from the same point — the top 
of the common peduncle, as Milk-weed, Onion. When 



140 



STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[119, 120. 



the pedicels of an umbel become themselves umbels, 
as in Caraway and most of the Umbelliferse, a com- 
pound umbel is produced. Such secondary umbels are 
called umbellets, and the primary pedicels, rays. 

360. The panicle is a compound inflorescence 
formed by the irregular branching of the pedicels of 
the raceme, as in Oats, Spear-grass, Catalpa. A thyrse 
is a sort of compact, oblong, or pyramidal panicle, as 
in Lilac, Grape. 

361. A head or capitulum is a sort of reduced 
umbel, having the flowers 
all sessile upon the top of 
the peduncle, as in the 
Button-bush, Clover. But 
the more common exam- 
ples of the capitulum are 
seen in the Composite, 
where the summit of the 
peduncle, that is, the recep- 
tacle, is dilated, bearing the 
sessile flowers above, and 
scale-like bracts around, as 
an involucre. 

362. The capitulum of ^T 

. , s-s, ., • n, 451, A fruit with pappus. 

the Compositae is often 

called a compound flower from its resemblance, the in- 
volucre answering to a calyx, the rays to the corolla. 
The flowers are called florets — those of the outer cir- 
cle, florets of the ray, generally differing in form from 
those of the central portions, the florets of the disk. 

363. Of terminal inflorescence the following varie- 
ties are described : cyme, fascicle (verticillaster), and 
glomerule. 




446, Vernonia fasciculata — flowers in a discoid 
head with an imbricated involucre. 447, A single 
flower remaining on the receptacle. 448, A fruit 
crowned with the pappus. 449, Mulgedium — a head, 
single flower remaining on the receptacle. 



120, 121.] 



SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE. 



141 



364. Cyme is a general term denoting any inflores- 
cence with centrifugal evolutions, but is properly ap- 
plied to that level-topped or fastigiate form which 




454 



453 



452 



Diagram (452) of cyme flowers numbered in the order of their development — i53, Cyme fastigiate. 454, 
Cyme half developed — a scorpoid raceme. 

resembles the corymb, as in the Elder. If it is loosely 
spreading, not fastigiate, it is called a cymous panicle, 
as in the Chickweed, Spergula, etc. If it be rounded, 
as in the Snowball, it is a globose cyme. 




455 456 

455, Myosotis palustris— scorpioid racemes. 456, Stellaria media— a regular cyme. 

365. A scorpioid cyme, as seen in the Sundew, 
Sedum, and Borra-ge family, is a kind of coiled raceme, 
unrolling as it blossoms. It is understood to be a half- 
developed cyme, as illustrated in the cut (454). The 
fascicle is a modification of the cyme, with crowded 



142 



STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 



[121, 122. 



and nearly sessile flowers, as in Sweet- William (Dian- 
thus). 

366. Glomerule, an axillary tufted cluster, with a 
centrifugal evolution, frequent in the Labiatge, etc. 
When such occur in the axils of opposite leaves and 
meet around the stem, each pair constitutes a verticil- 
laster or verticil, as in Catmint, Hoarhound. 




463 464 462 



367. The above diagrams show the mutual relations of the several forms 
of centripetal inflorescence — how they are graduated from the spike (457) to 
the head (464). Thus the spike (457) + the pedicels = raceme (458) ; the raceme 
with the lower pedicels lengthened = corymb (459) ; the corymb — the rachis = 
umbel (460) ; the umbel — pedicels = head (464), etc. 

(For the phenomena of Flowering, Coloring, the Floral Calendar, the 
Floral Clock, see the Class Book of Botany, pp. 75-77.) 






PART SECOND. 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY 



CHAPTER I, 



VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

368. The vegetable cell is the foundation of all 
plant structure, and when complete is a sac or bag-like 
body containing a semi-fluid substance 
called Protoplasm. The cell -wall in- 
creases by expansion. Spaces (vacuoles) 

appear among 
the particles 
of protoplasm, 
which are occu- 
pied by a watery 

SUbStanCe Called nucleolus; &, cell-wall; 

1 1 -p c,c, protoplasm mass sep- 

Cell-Sap. In SOme arated from the cell-wall 

, « j_-. -,-, by alcohol. 

part of the cell 
a spot appears where the 
granules of Protoplasm are 
crowded together, forming a 





465 
465, Mature cell of 



466, Section of pfth-cell of Taxodium ; a, T\ li n] f^ii ^ 
nucleus ; 6, nucleolus ; c, e, protoplasm sac 



The cell is now 
STC^S-T^P^ complete, and thus furnished 
SsT^t^SME ^ an organism capable of ex- 
Mnt«d M .r sp.ce. ercising vital functions, and 

possesses the ability to multiply itself or produce new 



144 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 




L^—1 



cells. In the early stages of the plant's life, the Proto- 
plasm is a naked mass, but it very soon surrounds 
itself with a wall, as in Figs. 465 a 

and 466. Inside the cell-wall it 
arranges itself into a great variety 
of forms. 

In Fig. 467, A shows new cells, 
with the protoplasm evenly distrib- 
uted, and nuclei forming, k, k. Fig. 
467, B, great changes have taken 
place, cell-sap has been introduced, 
and the protoplasm is much vacuo- 
lated, and appears either floating 
freely in the cell-sap, spread along the 
cell-wall, or otherwise aggregated. 
In Fig. 468, A, the protoplasm seems 
to be aggregating, and spots or vac- 
uoles are appearing in its midst. 
Fig. 467, .S, the protoplasm is form- 
ing in globular masses around por- 
tions of sap. These little vesicles 
are frequently furnished with the 
green coloring matter of the plant. 
Fig. 468, C, highly magnified cell, 
in which the protoplasm has re- 
treated from the cell-wall under 467 

. 467, A, Very young cells from 

the aCtlOn OI Weak SUlpnUriC aClU nearthetipoftherootofFritilla- 

ria ; B, cells from a part a little 
and iodine. higher up in the root; s, s, s, sap; 

Jc, x, y y nuclei and nucleoli form- 

369. Protoplasm is complex and in g; *, protoplasm, 
constantly changing in its constitution. It yields to 
chemical analysis materials similar to egg albumen, 
and is the living substance of the cell ; its appearance 
under the .microscope is shown in Figs. 465-468, 




VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



145 







The chemical substances that have been detected in Protoplasm are Oxygen, 
Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Phosphoms, 
Chlorine, and frequently Silicon and Sodium. 

The relative proportions of these substances differ in different orders, and 
are not constant in the same plant. 



3 70. The wall of the cell 

(Fig. 466) is produced by 
some action of the proto- 
plasm. When first formed 
it is very thin, soft, and uni- 
form in thickness ; but as it 
grows older, it is thickened 
by additional coatings, or 
strata, upon the inner sur- 
face ; sometimes of uniform 
thickness, but more fre- 
quently in veins, rings, spots, 
or ridges, forming the foun- 
dation for the tissues and 
vessels of plants hereafter to be considered. 

371. Cellulose is the substance of which the cell- 
wall is formed. It yields to the chemist the same ele- 
ments that are found in starch, whose formula is 
C 6 H 10 O 5 ; besides these, several other mineral sub- 
stances are present in minute quantities. 

372. Woody material, called lignin, is deposited or 
formed upon the walls of some cells, by which they 
are hardened and strengthened. The component parts 
of this substance are not accurately known ; there is 
reason to believe they vary in different plants, and 
even in different parts of the same plant. Mineral 
substances, principally silica and lime compounds, also 
thicken the cell-walls and increase their induration 
and strength. 



468, Forms of Protoplasm ; A and B, cells 
from the stalk of Indian Corn : C, from a tuber 
of Jerusalem Artichoke after action of iodine and 
sulphuric acid; h, cell-wall; k, nucleus; &, nu- 
cleolus; p, protoplasm. 



146 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

373. Chlorophyl. — In the living cells of those 
parts of plants exposed to sunlight, granules appear, 
resembling protoplasm grains in all respects except 
color. These minute bodies are green, and furnish the 
green color to leaves '' and all other green parts of 
plants ; the name applied to these granules is due to 
their color, and as the leaf is the most conspicuous 
green part of the plant, the term Chlorophyl (Leaf 
Green) has been applied to this green color. Some 
authors have called chlorophyl grains stained proto- 
plasm, viewing chlorophyl as the stain, and the 
chlorophyl granule as colored protoplasm (Figs. 466, 
467). 

374. Starch is a most important plant product, 
and is formed by the action of protoplasm and chloro- 
phyl under sunlight ; it is found sparingly in the 
leaf, and when more than enough to supply the plant's 
daily wants is produced, the surplus is stored up in 
some other part of the plant, as the tuber of the 
Potato, the grains of Wheat, and other cereals, in 
which form it is utilized for animal food. Its com- 
ponent parts are identical with those of cellulose. 

469 Forms of starch-grains are shown in 

Figs. 469-473. The form of starch- 
grains is very various, differing in dif- 
ferent plants, and 
W§ even in the same 
parts of the same 
~4?2 plant. Fig. 473, 

469, Cells of Potato containing starch-grains. 470, Starch-grains a sy 7l P f(~) H P\ PP. 
from the Potato. 471, from the E. Indian Arrowroot. 472, Starch ■ Z1 > ^J U J U i bU Ul cX>LK ^ 
granules from W. Indian Arrowroot. starch-graillS f TOTD 

a grain of Indian Corn. Fig. 473, B, shows starch- 
grains from a grain of Wheat ; these are more nearly 








VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 147 

uniform in shape and size 
and somewhat lens-shaped. 
375. Crystals of a great 
variety, of shape are found 
in some of the cells of 
most plants of the higher 
orders ; the most simple of 
these forms are cubical or 
prismatic ; but they occur 
in almost every variety of 
polyhedral form. In some 
orders they appear in slen- 
der needle-shaped bodies 
called Raphides. They usu- 
ally occur, solitary or in 
masses, in the cell cavity, 
but are not unfrequently 
found in the ceU-ivall 

(T?\ to AT A AT r\\ ^' ^' * s a ce ^ fr° m tne endosperm of a grain of 

\-^ ^to^ 5, •*- ' ^? *± i O), Indian Corn, crowded with starch-grains ; the grains 

PI a n f p-r^Qtal q arp fh p marked a ' & ' c ' etc " t0 g are also from the interior of 
-L ldil L Li)& Lalb di t; Lilt? a gram f corn . The grains marked B are from the 

• -i nil i • n interior of a grain of Wheat. 

residua of the materials 

used in the chemical combinations that have taken 

place in the cell under the 
action of sunlight, and are 
usually composed of lime 
carbonate or lime oxalate. 
Other calcic combinations 
are, however, frequently 
present. The difficulties at- 
tending the separating of 
plant crystals from their 
surroundings have thus far 

stellate masses of crystals; B, 12, inner cells, with J n -x -jm-no^iblp HI 

raphides escaping ; C, alenrone crystal. Tendered 11 lllipUfeblUlt; 111 





148 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



some cases to determine with accuracy their chemical 
constituents. 

376. Cell-sap is the watery fluid in the cell which 
suspends the food and working material taken into 
the cell from the air and the 

soil and the soluble substances 
which the plant produces, and 
is the medium by which food is 
conveyed throughout the plant's 
structure. All parts of the active 
cell are filled with water ; it con- 
stitutes a large part of the cellu- 
lose, and forms the greater part 
of the bulk of protoplasm. Sugar 
is a prominent sub- 
stance in the cell- 
sap, both cane and 
grape. Cane-sugar 

PlhrmnrlQ in "HlP PpIIq 475, -4, cross-section of oak-gall : d, sclerenchymatous cells ; 

cLUULLIILLo III LIlt5 L/t}IIfc> c ^ outside tissue, with oxalate crystals, e, inner tissue containing 
rvP Q rvctr*r^a o Q rvar» star(m and resm - 1?, forms of calcium oxalate crystals. 

Maple, Beet, Sorghum, Indian Corn, and most of the 
higher plants ; while grape-sugar gives sweetness to 
grapes, cherries, figs, and gooseberries. In the poma- 
ceous and drupe fruits both kinds are present. For cell- 
sap in both large and small vacuoles, see Fig. 466, p; 
Fig. 467, B, s, s, s. 

377. New cells, to which the enlargement or growth 
of the plant is due, are formed in one of the three fol- 
lowing typical modes : 

378. 1, Rejuvenescence. — In this method of pro- 
ducing new cells, the entire mass of the protoplasm is 
expelled from the old cell, and, when set free, sur- 
rounds itself with a wall, thus becoming a new cell. 





VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AJS T D PHYSIOLOGY. 



149 



3 79. 2, Conjugation. — New cells are also produced 
by the union of the protoplasm of two or more cells; 
the contents of which having commingled, the com- 
bined mass incloses itself with a cellulose covering, 
and becomes a new cell. 

380. 3, Fission is the name applied to the mode of 
cell production by which two or more new cells are 
formed out of one. This is the usual mode, and may 
be treated under three heads. 

381. a, Fission Proper. — A young complete cell (Figs. 
465, 466) possesses the power to multiply. The most 
simple case of this process is the division of the cell 
into two equal, or nearly equal, parts. The protoplasm 
forms two nucleus-like spots ; a stricture then com- 
mences in the wall between the spots, and the cell 
seems to pinch itself into two. This process is shown 
in the fission of Bacterium cells (Figs. 511, 512). 

In most cases the process is accompanied by a 
stricture more or less prominent ; at the same time 
an equatorial septum appears between the nuclear 
spots, and divides the old cell into two nearly equal 
new cells (Fig. 476). In this case the stricture in the 
cell-wall is barely visible. The new cells round up and 
soon become sub-globular in form. 




476 
476, Phases of a cell undergoing the process of fission ; a, complete cell with drops of cell-sap among 
the protoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus ; &, same, with nucleus and nucleolus divided ; c, with stricture 
and wall forming across between the nuclei ; d, same, with the septum completed, and the fission accom- 
plished ; two separate cells have been formed by dividing the old cell into two. 



150 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



The process of cell division depends first upon the nucleus which forms a 
spindle of radiating fibrils with an equatorial disk. A middle wall, or parti- 
tion, is formed at the disk, whereby two distinct cells are produced (477).— 
Macloskitfs Elementary Botany. 





477 

477, No. 1, mature cell ; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 show the changes through which No. 1 passes preparatory to 
the final act of fission ; seen completed in No. 9. 

382. 5, Budding is another form of plant multipli- 
cation. In this mode the plant cell puts forth a pro- 
trusion which enlarges until it is about 
the size of the old cell, when a partition 
wall is thrown across at the juncture, 
making the new cell complete and inde- 
pendent. In Fig. 478 the process of bud- 
ding is shown in its several forms. 47s, Yeast-piant, s ac - 

charomyces cerivesiae, 

383. c, Intra-cell Formation. — Under undergoing the process 

of budding. 

this head are treated those cases in which 
several aggregations appear within the cell and the 
entire mass of protoplasm separates into two, three, or 
more parts, each of which, either at the time the divi- 
sion is going on or soon after, becomes inclosed in a 
cellulose envelope, and speedily assumes a globular 
form, as an independent complete cell. 



VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



151 



In the preparation for cell division nuclens-like formations usually appear 
in the mother cell. The whole protoplasmic body breaks up into two, three, 
four, or more parts, and each quickly takes on a spher- a 

ical form (Fig. 479). — Sachs' Text-book of Botany. 

All these modes of cell multiplica- 
tion and formation are subject to great 
variation ; each has a tendency to run 
into one of the others ; the last is espe- 
cially liable to vary as to number of 
daughter cells. 

384. The form of cells varies to 
suit the use for which they are in- 
tended and the amount and direction 
of the pressure to which they are sub- 
jected. The normal shape is globular or spheroidal 
when free from pressure (Fig. 480) ; when pressure 




479 
479, Showing cell forma- 
tion in Achlya — mother cell, 
showing a number of nuclei 
in the mass of protoplasm 
which is preparing to break 
up into a number of inde- 
pendent or daughter cells ; 
a, a, a, etc., nuclei. 








480, Form of cells in loose parenchyma. 481, Cross-section of parenchyma cells from stalk of Indian 
Corn (X550), showing form under slight pressure; gw,gic, partition walls ; z, z, intercellular spaces. 

from surrounding cells is exerted, they be- 
come ellipsoidal, egg-shaped, prismatic, or 
polyhedral (Figs. 481,482). In the trunks 
and branches of trees and stems of herba- 
ceous plants the cells become elongated 
in the direction of growth (Fig. 467). 

385. The size of the cells in the soft 
tissue varies; the largest is about -^ of 




482, Form of cells 
under greater pressure 
from all directions. 




152 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

an inch in diameter. From this cells occur whose 
diameters range all the way down to -5-0V0 of an inch 
in diameter. In the more solid tissues they range 
from I to 4V of an inch in length, and from ygVo- to 
■j-^o in their cross-sections. Cells of the long staple 
cotton wool are from one to two inches in length. 

386. Spiral and annular cells are formed when 
rings, bands, or hoop-like processes 
appear on the inner surfaces of the 
walls ; in the spiral cell an uninter- 
rupted fibrous process extends the 
whole length of the cell in a spiral 

483 

coil (Fie;. 483). The annular cell has 483 * s P iral cel1 from 0r - 

x ° ' chid. 484, Annular cell from 

bands or hoop-like markings as though Mistletoe - 

the spiral fiber had been interrupted at several points 

(Fig. 484). 

387. Dotted or pitted cells are pro- 
duced when the coatings on the rtmer sur- 
face of the cell wall are not uniform in 
thickness, leaving thin spots, or pits, which 
485, Dotted or are m ore nearly transparent when viewed 

pitted cells from ^ ■*■ 

Eider pith. under the glass, than the more thickened 

parts of the wall; hence the name (Fig. 485). 

388. Reticulated cells are produced by 
coatings which are deposited or formed 
upon the inner surface of the cell-wall, 
where they at first appear in spots and 
lines, of different sizes and lengths (Fig. 486, Reticulated 

cell from the Mis- 

486). As the cell grows older, the markings tietoe. 
increase in length, and touching each other, form an 
irregular net-work. 

389. Collenchyma cells are cubical, cylindrical, or 
irregular in form, whose walls are much thickened 





VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



153 



at the angles, while they are of ordinary thickness in 

other parts. These cells occur in 

most plants of the higher orders 

and in some ferns, and are found 

in the tissues just beneath the 

epidermis. 

390. Sclerenchyma cells, some- 
times called grit or stony cells, 
have hardened walls produced 
by deposition upon them of the 
horny substance found in the 
pits of the Cherry, Peach, and 
Plum and the shells of nuts; 
sometimes found in the fleshy 
parts of the Pear. 




487, Collenchyma cells from leaf stalk 
of Begonia; e, epidermal cells; d, collen- 
chyma cells; chl, chlorophyll grains; », 
thickened angles where these cells meet; 
p< part of parenchyma cell. 





488, Sclerenchyma cells ; PP, canals connecting the cavity t with the outer surface or adjacent cells; 
1, 2, 3, thickened layers ; p, in 22, ceil walls. 

391. Epidermal cells appear in plate-like expan- 
sions forming the outer coverings of leaves and young 
bark ; their edges are in contact ; their boundaries are 
either straight or sinuous ; and they are elongated in 
the direction' of growth. The edges are so firmly knit 
together that the entire covering of one side of a leaf 
may be removed intact. The epidermis at first is usu- 
ally formed of a single layer, but later it is sometimes 
made up of two or more layers (Fig. 489). 



154 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



ss^HIISS 



392. Hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells, and 
are composed usually of greatly elongated single cells 
(Figs. 490-497), which fre- 
quently branch ; others are 
made up of a number of cells. 
Hairs take on a number of 
forms by branching. 

Scales are another form of 
epidermal outgrowth, and ap- 
pear in the form of disks. 

Bristles are hair-like proc- 
esses, the walls of whose cells are hardened. 

Prickles are outgrowths of a still firmer character. 




489, Is a vertical section of a leaf of Bank - 
sia ; a, a, show two layers of cells in the epi- 
dermis ; c, hairs found in little cavities on the 
under side of the leaf. 




490, Rootlet of Madder, showing cells expanded into hair-like processes. 491, Section of a glandular 
hair of Fraxinella. 492, Hair of Brionia, composed of several cells. 493, Hair surmounted by a gland, An- 
tirrhinum majus. 494, Stinging hair of Urtica dioica. 495, Jointed hair from a stamen of Tradescandia. 
495, Star-shaped hair from the petiole of Nuphar ad vena (X200). 497, Branched hair of Arabis. 

393. Glands are processes consisting of a single 
cell or an aggregation of cells, situated a little above, 
at, or just beneath the surface, the function of which 
is to secrete and discharge peculiar substances, as oils, 
nectar, etc. Glands sometimes terminate in a hair-like 
process (Fig. 493). 

Stinging hairs are usually setaceous and sufficiently 
rigid to perforate animal tissue ; having entered, the 



VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



155 



apex breaks off and the contained irritating liquid is 
discharged into the wound, producing the sting. 

394. Stoma-cells are epidermal. Stomata are 
mouths or openings into the intercellular spaces of the 
leaves and young bark, sometimes called breathing- 
pores. They are guarded each by two half-moon- 
shaped cells whose concave sides lie next each other ; 
when filled with liquids, their concavity increases, leav- 
ing an orifice between the guard cells. For the passage 
of air and moisture when the atmosphere is dry and 
the plant* can not afford to part with its fluids, the 
guard cells lose their concavity, the sides become 
straight, the orifice closes, and evaporation is arrested. 
The number of these openings is very great, many 
thousands appearing in a square inch of surface (Figs. 
498-500, 522-524). 




500 498 

498, Cells of epidermis with a stoma from leaf of Helleborus foetidus. 499, Vertical section of a stoma of 
Narcissus; a, cuticle.' 500, Epidermis cells with stomata of Tradescantia Yirginica — a. a, guard cells. 

395. Cork cells are cubical or tabular, and fit closely 
together ; in the outer layers they are dead and empty, 
and constitute the outer bark layers of old trees, prom- 
inent in the Quercus suber (Cork Oak). 



156 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



CHAPTER II. 



TISSUES. 

396. Parenchyma is a tissue composed of short 
cells, usually with intercellular spaces among them, 
and is the foundation of vegetable structure. All cells 
may be regarded as modifications of parenchyma ; the 
various markings and forms being due to alterations 
which go on by degrees to fit them for the functions 
they are to exercise in the tissues of the plant. 

397. In the lower plants the entire individual con- 
sists of parenchyma, and it is found throughout the 
structure of the higher 
plants, mingled and in- 
terlaced with other tis- 
sue, especially in their 
green parts. Fig. 501 
is a microscopic view 
of a thin slice of the 
rhizome of Sanguina- 
ria Canadensis, mag- 
nified to 100 diame- 
ters ; the cells are un- 
der pressure, and vary 
greatly in size and 
shape, and have a bun- 
dle of wood-cells imbedded among them. For forms 
and size of cells see No. 385 ; also see Figs. 480-482. 

398. Prosenchyma is the generic name of the 
elongated, painted cells or fibers without intercellular 
spaces that form plant tissues. 




501, Section of the rhizome of Bloodroot ; a, a, a bundle of 
wood-cells. 



TISSUES. 



157 




502, Wood-cells. 503, Cross-section 
same. 504, Wood-cells in combina- 
tion forming a fibro- vascular bundle. 



399. Woody tissue is made up of slender, lengthened, 
lignifled cells, which taper at the 
ends, and are found in woody 
plants overlapping each other, 
and packed in bundles (Figs. 
502-504). 

400. Bast tissue is composed 
of elongated cells, with thickened 
walls, not sufficiently lignifled to 
be hard - f they are flexible and 
tough, and abound in the inner 
bark of dicotyledonous trees and of 
shrubs. 

401. Disk-bearing tissue is constituted of length- 
ened cells, which have pits or 
lens-shaped markings, found in 
the Pine and other gymnosperms 
(Fig. 505). 

402. Vessels or ducts are 
tubes or passages through which 
the fluids pass from one part of 
the plant's structure to another. 
In the formation of these pas- 
sages elongated cells arrange 
themselves end to end, become 
anastomosed ; the walls in the 
ends of the cells are ruptured or 
disappear, and uninterrupted pas- 
sages are produced. 

403. Spiral vessels are con- 
505, Lengthwise section of (Scotch structed by the union of spiral 

Pine) Pinus Sylvestris, showing disk- 
bearing tissue : c6, Cambium wood-ceiis; cells, in the manner described in 

a, b, c, etc., older cells : t, f, t", bordered 

pits; si, large pits {x 225). -Sachs. the last article (Fig. 506), 




158 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



404. Annular or ringed ducts are produced by the 
union end to end of annular cells, the walls of which 
are held apart by rings or hoop-like 
thickenings on the inner surface (Fig. 
507, A, B, C). 

405. Scalariform ducts, character- 
istic of ferns, are formed when the an- 
nular vessels are compressed into pris- 
matic forms whose sides present the 
appearance of ladders (Fig. 507, D). 

406. Dotted or pitted ducts are 
formed of dotted or pitted cells, as in 
the case of annular cells (Fig. 507, E). 

407. Sieve ducts or tubes are 
formed of colorless elongated cells, of 
large diameter ; the walls are soft and 
very much enlarged and thickened at the joints ; at 
the junctions finely perforated plates appear (Fig. 




506 



506, A, spiral vessels from a 
Melon petiole ; JB, spiral vessel 
from Mamillaria. 





ABC D 

507, A, annular vessel from leaf-stalk of Melon; JB, duct, part spiral and part annular, from Melon; C, 
part annular and part reticulated duct from Melon ; J9, annular and reticulated ducts pressed into pris- 
matic shape, forming scalariform vessels, from Tree-fern ; E, pitted or dotted duct, formed by the union 
of pitted cells from melon-stalk. 

508, A) ; also on the internodes are spots of fine per- 
forations and slits (Fig. 508, B). These spots of per- 
forations are like a strainer or sieve ; hence the name. 



TISSUES. 



159 





c03, A, Cross-section of Pumpkin vine (x559); si, walls or septa at the union of cells, developing into 
sieve plates; c, c, cambium cells ; p, p, parenchyma. B, Lengthwise section, showing the enlarged joints ; 
q, an edge view of sieve septa; si, sieve spot on the side-wall. 



408. Latex vessels are 
produced by the union end 
to end of latex cells; by 
anastomosing and branch- 
ing a reticulated tissue is 
formed which conveys the 
milky juices of the plant 
through its structure. In 
the tissues of the Ficus 
elastica, Euphorbia and the 
milk weeds, besides the 
Latex tubes, numerous 
closed cells are present, 
charged with the same 
milky fluids as the ducts 
(Fig. 509).' The free cells J 
frequently elongate, and 
sometimes branch. 

These vessels are ar- 

-i . , -j . 609, A, Latex vessels forming an irregular net- 

rangeCl in tne Stiem aS rep - work in a transverse section of the bark of Seorzonera 

Hispanica. B, A fragment of a latex vessel more 
highly magnified.— SaeJis. 




resented in Fig. 510. 



160 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 




510, -4, Lengthwise section of the Castor-oil plant. Beginning with the bark, r, cortical cells; gs, bun- 
dle sheath; 6, bast fibers; jp, bast parenchyma; c, cambium; the cells between c and p become sieve tubes; 
t, t, pitted vessels ; q, shows an absorbed septum ; h'\ h" t annular ducts; A, h, pitted vessels, resembling 
annular ducts; ?, vessel apparently made up partly of annular cells and partly of reticulated cells; s, spiral 
vessel, of very small caliber, next to the pith; *', larger calibered spiral vessel; m, pith-cells. 







510, J3, Lengthwise slice of wood from an Ailanthus glandulosa, highly magnified; g, g, pitted ducts; p>p, 
wood parenchyma; lf t woody fibers; st, st, cross-section of medullary rays; t, annular ducts. 



SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 161 



CHAPTER III. 

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 

409. The brief account of the cell and its modifica- 
tions into tissues and ducts, prepares for the considera- 
tion of the manner in which these organs are arranged 
in the structure of plants. 

In the lowest groups of plant life the individual is 
either a single cell or an assemblage of soft cells, with- 
out special order of arrangement, 

'410. Unicellular plants. — The most simple forms 
of plant life are single minute cells, called Bacteria, 
the smallest objects that are 
known to exercise vital func- 
tions ; they are so small that 
50,000 laid on a line side 
by side would occupy a 
space less than an inch in 
length. The typical form 
is globular, appearing under 

the microscope as a minute 5Uj x Sarcine; , Bacterium; 3> Vibro . ^ ^ 
granule or dot, as No. 1 in lum " 

Fig. 511 ; they are, however, frequently elongated, and 
appear in an oval form, as in No. 2 ; again, they take 
on the form of a -fine line, straight, curved, or crooked, 
as in No. 3,; another time they are spiral, as in No. 4. 
These minute cells are stored with protoplasm, and 
swim in fluids from which they obtain nourishment. 
They increase by fission, and multiply with marvelous 
rapidity. They are found in the watery fluids of both 
animals and plants. 




162 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



Some Bacteria separate into spores; and diseases in men as well as plants 
are believed to be due to the presence of Bacteria. They are parasitical or 
saprophytic, feeding on living or decaying matter; they are the agents of de- 
cay and revel upon the ruins they produce. As they multiply by fission, they 
are called Schizomycetes (o-x^<», to divide, and /xv>o?s, a fungus). (Fig. 512.) 



/ 


& x 


\ 




s% 


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512 



512, A, Bacterium Termo, magnified to 1,000 diameters, undergoing the process of fission. B, Same, 
magnified to 3,000 diameters, in which the process of fission is nearly completed. C, Micrococci (xl,000) 
undergoing fission, the new cells arranging themselves in curved and crooked lines or in irregular groups. 
D, Sarcina Ventriculi (x 1,000) undergoing fission in two directions, the new cells arranging themselves in 
square groups. 

411. The Yeast Plant (Fig. 513) is one of the most 
interesting of the unicellular organisms ; it is the agent 
of fermentation, and plays an important 
part in bread-making, where it disinte- 
grates the starch-grains in the flour, and 
thereby liberates carbon dioxide ; the gas ^*n0H'<& 
set free struggles to find its way through 513 

00 v ° 513, Yeast Plant, Sac 

the dough, becomes entangled, forms cav- charomyces cerevisi*. 
ities in the mass, and makes it sponge-like or light. 

412. The next grade above the plant which is a 
single cell is one composed of a mass of cells without 
a special axis of growth ; as some of the Sea-weeds, 
which are mere masses of flat cells arranged in two 
layers, forming irregular leaf-like expansions. 




SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLAXT GROWTH. 



168 




514 



418. This book is intended to consider the higher 
plants only ; we shall therefore now proceed to describe 
the manner in which the modi- 
fied cells and vessels are ar- 
ranged in the higher organized 
plant structures. 

414. Exogenous or Dicotyle- 
donous structure. — Growth in the 
most highly organized plants is 
best illustrated by the examina- 
tion of a tree or shoot of Oak, 
Maple, Apple, or Cherry at the end of the first year of 

its life. A cross-section of such a 
scion presents a circle of pith in 
the center, around which are con- 
centric circular rings, the inner one 
wood, the outer ones bark. In the 
figure (514), a, the pith; 5, the 
wood ; c, the bark. On the inner 
edge of the wood is a ring of spK 
ral vessels, d, which is called the 
medullary or pith sheath. The pith 
is made up of parenchyma and 
extends between the wedges of 
wood in flat cells connecting the 
pith with the bark (1, 2, 3, Fig. 

515 

515, a, cross-section of the stem of 514), forming the silver grain 

a Maple at the end of the first season's . r-\ i i -\ r 1 in 

growth; i, edge of the pith; 2, spiral seen m Oak and Maple planks, 

vessels: 3, wood region made up of . , .. -, . -, , . n 

woody fiber and dotted ducts and other or m a longitudinal section or 

vessels; 4, cambium layer made up of , , -. , . -, 

new cells; 5. liber: 6, larger cells and thOSe and Other Cabinet WOOaS 
vessels of the liber or bast region; 7, 

cellular envelope or green bark; 8, When Split. 

corky envelope or outer bark ; 9, the ^ _ 

skin, or epidermis. B, shows corre- 415. The WOOd IS made Up Of 

sponding vessels and tissues in a ver- 
tical section of the same plant, woody fiber interspersed with tis- 




164 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



sues composed of the cells, vessels, and ducts which 
have already been described. 

416. The bark at the end of the first year's growth 
is made up of three layers: the one next the wood, 
called bast, is composed of pa- 
renchyma, sieve vessels, and li- 
ber-cells ; on account of the pre- 
dominance of the bast ducts in 
this layer, it has been called the 
bast region (Figs. 508, 516). 
The liber-cells are long, strong 
fibers, and in some plants are 
very tenacious and flexible, form- 
ing the material in Hemp, Flax, 
and other textile substances util- 
ized in manufacture of cordage 
and fabrics. 

Next to the bast is the green 
cellular layer, called phellogen, 
because by its dividing, it pro- 
duces outside of it cork, which 
increases by the addition of new 
material to the inner surface. 
The cork is usually of a brown 
or ashy color, sometimes white 
or striped ; in old trees it is 
cracked and broken by the 
growth of the wood, and falls 
off in scales or strips, as in the 
shag-bark Hickory ; in the Paper 
Birch it peels off in sheets resembling paper. Upon 
some trees it develops into thick porous layers, and 
upon the Cork Oak furnishes the cork of commerce. 




516, Is a photograph from nature of a 
layer of bast-fibrous bundles found in the 
secondary bark of the stem of an old Carica 
papaya. These bundles, originating in the 
cambium, are arranged in ten to twenty 
layers one over another like the leaves in 
a book. These fibers by anastamosing 
have formed an irregular net-work with 
elongated sinuous meshes. These meshes 
during their life were filled with soft sec- 
ondary cortical tissue which has been re- 
moved by maceration. 



SYSTEMS OP TISSUES AXD PLANT GROWTH. 



165 









417. During the season of activity the young stem 
continues to increase both in height and diameter by 
the multiplication of cells and the formation of the 
various tissues required by the conditions of growth 
(Chap. III., Introduction) ; hence a mass of infant cells 
is constantly present between the wood and the bark, 
and in the buds of the stem and branches. 

On the approach of winter the leaves fall, the ter- 
minal buds refuse to expand, and the entire process 
of growth is arrested, until the revivifying warmth of 
the succeeding spring unlocks the imprisoned forces 
that have slept during the frosty season, when the 
fluids from the earth begin to flow upward and out- 
ward through the vessels and ducts of the last year's 
wood to the bark and the leaves ; the young cambium 
cells which have slumbered through the winter are 
filled with sap and commence another season of 
growth ; the buds burst into leaves or flowers, and the 
greatest activity succeeds the late period of rest. The 
young cells multiply and increase in size, most of 
them being changed into woody fiber and ducts, com- 
mencing a new layer of wood on 
the outside of the last layer, and 
a new layer of bast on the inside 
of the old one ; also a new layer 
on the inside of the cortex layer. 
In this way the work goes on, and 
layer after layer is added for each 
period of activity, which in regions 
of severe frost occurs yearly (Fig. 517, is a photograph of a cross- 

■ . section of an oak-stem Twenty-five 

Ol/j. \\ ltlim tlie trOpiCS and all years old, showing the annual circular 

rings, the whole surrounded by the 

regions of no frost, periods of rest rough bark. 

and activity may occur more frequently than once a 





517 



166 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTAJSfY. 

year, and therefore the number of rings on a cross- 
section does not always indicate the number of years 
in the age of a tree. But in the higher latitudes a 
new tube of wood and one of the inner bark is formed 
yearly. 

That more than one ring of wood may, and sometimes does, form in one 
season of growth, even in regions of severe frost, has been established by- 
observation. 

418. Sap wood is a name applied to the new wood, 
and usually includes several of the last formed layers ; 
it is so called because the fluids in moving upward from 
the ground pass through its vessels. In most trees it 
is of a lighter color than the older layers, and on that 
account was called by early botanists Lignum album, 
white wood ; now called Alburnum, or white wood. 

419. Heart wood is that part of the trunk or stem 
near the center or heart, and for that reason called 
Heart wood. It is usually more dense, and therefore 
called Duramen, hard wood. In some species it is 
much darker than the sap wood, hence former botan- 
ists called it Lignum nigrum, Black wood. In some 
plants, as the Black Walnut, the Duramen is very 
dark, while the Heart wood of the Maple is not much 
darker than the sap wood, though they may grow side 
by side and draw from the earth the same materials. 
It would seem, therefore, that chemical changes take 
place either in the plant's structure or upon the ma- 
terials taken in to suit the necessities of each case. 

On account of the mode of growth in Dicotyledonous stems, the name 
Exogens, or outside growers, was formerly applied to plants of this structure. 
They are characterized by two or more seed leaves in their embryo, and pro- 
duce netted- veined leaves. See Dicotyledons, pages 163-166. 

Nearly all the trees and shrubs of the temperate 
zones are Exogens or Dicotyledonous plants, well 



SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AXD PL AST GROWTH. 



167 



represented by the Oak, 

Pine, Elm, Maple, Apple, 

Pear, Peach, Cherry, and 

other fruit and timber 

trees. 

<±20. The root is that 

part of the plant that 

grows downward into the 

ground and holds the 

whole firmly in the soil. 

Its tissues correspond with 

those of the stem to which 

it belongs, and it increases 

in diameter by additional 

layers, one for each period 

of activity, succeeded by 

a rest. The extremity of 

the root and that of each 

of its branches is encased by a layer of older cells, 

called the root cap, a con- 
trivance which seems to 
be intended to protect the 
tender infant cells just be- 
hind it, which during the 
growing season are increas- 
ing and multiplying, to ex- 
tend the root and rootlets 
in all directions in the soil. 
The parts of the root and 
rootlets near the growing 
points absorb the fluids 
which are presented to 

519. Rootlet of Maple with hairs or fihrillae; p. root 

cap. 520, Duckmeat. showing the root cap s. theill ill the SOU, but this 




518, a, Shruh; 6, Fir: c, Oak-tree. 



519 



530 




168 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

absorption is largely helped by root hairs, which clothe 
the root and rootlets, as seen in Figs. 519, 520. Fig. 
519, root of a Maple sprinkled with hair-like processes 
or minute fibrillae ; these are usually each a single 
elongated cell, and appear on the newer parts of the 
root, a little distance from the growing point, dying or 
becoming useless on the older parts. The Root, as to 
use, form, etc., is treated in another place (see Chapter 
XIII. , Structural Botany). 



CHAPTER IV. 

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE. 

421. The woody fibers and vessels that make up 
the stems of Palms, Indian Corn, Bamboo, Sugar Cane, 
and all grass-like plants, are not arranged as they are 
in the Oak, Maple, and Apple, already described. A 
cross-section of a Palm stem presents ^^=^^ 

a mass of pith, dotted all over with /^l^K^'^'^K 
sections of woody fiber and vessels ft^'^.'-'*^ 
without any apparent order of ar- fe^^°' D '^l-S| 
rangement (521); the whole inclosed ^^ l ^}\^l'/W 
in a circular ring or rind, in which ^^^^^ 
the fibro-vascular bundles are smaller 521 , Cross J^ n of the trunk 
than in the body of the stem. In a 
longitudinal section the threads of woody fiber may 
be traced from the bases of the leaves in a curve out 
toward the center, and in a recurve back again to the 
side whence they started (Figs. 522, 523). In stems 
like the Indian Corn and the Grasses, with long spaces 
between the leaves and closed nodes, the fibro-vascular 
threads extend in straight lines from node to node, 



MOKOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE. 



169 




where they unite with those of the next internode. 

The rind of the Corn 

stalk, Bamboo, Reed, etc., 

is smooth and flinty, due 

to the deposition of silica 

on the walls of the cells 

that compose it. This mode 

of growth is well shown in 

the Palms of tropical and 

SUb-trOpical regions, aS the 522 ' Vertical section of a Palm stem, showing 

course and direction of fibers. 523, Theoretical 
Palmetto Of the CarollnaS Plan of the direction of fibers ina vertical section of 

' a Palm stem ; a, a, bases of leaves, showing direc- 

the Cocoanut Palm, many tion of fiber ^ rowth 

thousands of which have been planted on the coast of 

Florida, 

422. The Palm, which is the type of the mono- 

cotyledonous division of the 
vegetable kingdom, reaches 
perfection only in tropical or 
sub-tropical regions. There 
some of the members of 
this great division tower to 
the height of one hundred 
and fifty feet, straight, un- 
branched cylindrical col- 
ums, crowned with a mass 
of green foliage, presenting 
to the eye magnificent ob- 
jects of the picturesque and 
beautiful. The Palm is one 
of the most important or- 
naments in planted grounds 
in tropical countries, occu- 
pying a belt all around the 




524 
524, Palm, Agave, etc. 



170 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

globe of about thirty-five degrees both sides of the 
Equator. It flourishes in the bare sands of the sea- 
coast, skirts arid plains, beautifies the oasis of the 
desert, and inhabits the murky bottoms of southern 
swamps and low islands of Southern Asia and tropical 
America. These plants are of vast utility, producing 
food and many domestic and economic products. 

There are certain noticeable things in the mode of 
monocotyledonous growth. The stem has no proper 
bark, does not increase in diameter after it is perfectly 
formed, and, with few exceptions, consists of an un- 
branched cylindrical column, made up of pith inter- 
mingled with fibro-vascular threads, generally without 
any order of arrangement, the whole inclosed in a 
rind or false bark (521-524), well illustrated in a 
cross-section of a stalk of Indian Corn. There are a 
few plants that seem to be connecting links between 
these two modes of growth ; a notable example of 
which is Dracaena draco, or Dragon-tree, which has a 
cambium region, and continues to increase in diameter. 

Formerly these plants were called Endogens, meaning Inside growers, 
in contradistinction to Exogens, or Outside growers, because the new ma- 
terial of growth was then supposed to be deposited always inside of the last 
deposit of woody bundles ; but as it is now known that the additions are 
interspersed among the former ones, in most cases without special order, the 
name is not expressive. Plants of this mode of growth have but one cotyle- 
don, or seed leaf ; their flowers are mostly three-parted, and their leaves 
generally parallel-veined. See Monocotyledons, pages 168-170. 

423. Tissues of the Pteridophyta. — The Ferns and 
their allies have a complicated and well-marked organi- 
zation ; the outer bark is similar to that of the flower- 
ing plants, and vascular-woody fiber extends through- 
out the stem, and leaf stalks ramifying in the fronds, 
to which the great beauty of this division of the 
vegetable world is due. 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 



171 



A cross-section of a Fern stem shows a mass of 
parenchyma, supported by an outer sheath or tube of 
vascular-woody bundles, the whole 
inclosed by a cortex of dense scleren- 
chyma, the leaf stems presenting the 
same structure (Fig. 525). 

424. Tissues of Bryophyta, moss- 
like plants. — The higher types of this 
division, while largely made up of 
cellular masses, have a semi-vascu- 
lar-fibro arrangement, and in some 525, section of an Acinous 

stem of Tree-Fern (Crathea\ 

mosses the fibers are so strong as to showing the vascniar bundles 

imbedded near the circumference 

approach a woody character. oftheceiMarmass. 




CHAPTER V. 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 

425. Leaves are composed of the same general 
structure as the stems and branches which they clothe 
and adorn, and are made up of vessels and tissues 
already described: 1, woody fiber, which constitutes 
the frame-work ; 2, cellular tissue, which fills up the 
spaces between the ribs or frame-work formed by the 
woody part. The leaf of a Maple, Elm, or Apple is 
composed of: 1, the leaf-stalk, by which it is attached 
to the stem or branch; 2, the blade, the expanded 
part. The leaf-stalk or petiole is a column of bundles 
of woody fiber and green tissue, covered by the epi- 
dermal tissue. These bundles extend in length to suit 
the size of the blade, throwing off branches and 
branchlets to construct the frame, making an irregular 
net-work, the meshes of which are filled up by the 



172 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 



green tissue. (See Structural Botany, Chapters XX- 
XXIII. inclusive.) 

42 6. An important function of the leaf is to expose 
a large surface ; consequently, the blade is thin and so 
formed as to present the largest number of cells to 
the air and sunlight. 

The layer on the upper side of the blade is made 
up of oblong cells, closely packed with their ends next 
to the surface. The lower layers are made up of 
smaller, more irregular and more loosely arranged 
cells, and have their 
longer diameters in the 
direction of the surface 
of the blade. The deep 
green color of the up- 
per surface of leaves is 
largely due to the com- 
pactness of the green 
cells in the upper layer, 
while the paler color of 
the under side is the 
consequence of the 
loose arrangement of 
those in the lower strata. The epidermal covering of 
the leaf, as before described, is a thin membrane made 
up of one, two, or three layers of empty thick-walled 
cells (Figs. 489-524 inclusive). 

42 7. Respiration is the act of drawing air into the 
lungs and casting it out again. (From the Latin re, 
again, and spirare, to blow or breathe.) The air while 
in the lungs is known to part with some of its oxygen, 
and what is breathed out is charged with substances 
which it did not possess when taken in ; therefore the 




526, Magnified portion of the leaf of Viola tricolor in 
perspective ; a, cells of the epidermis, sometimes called 
plate cells; b, compact layer of green cells next to the 
upper surface; c, loose cells below; d, epidermal cells of 
the lower surface, with stomata, one of which is cut to 
show its opening into the intercellular passages. 



LEAF STRUCTUKE. 



173 



taking in of oxygen and its combination with other 
substances while in the lungs and the liberation of 
substances thus formed constitute respiration in ani- 
mals. So with plants ; they suck or draw in air 
through openings in the epidermis already described, 
and when it is discharged it is found to be changed in 
character, having been robbed of its oxygen or of its 
carbon dioxide. The oxygen of the air while among 





528 

527, Is the section of a young stem or branch showing, at p, the pith; a, vascular-fibro bundle, passing 
off from the stem to form the leaf-stalk and frame-work of the blade; d, the swelling just below the foot of 
the stalk; I, the base of the footstalk; &, the axillary bud; c, the articulation or point where the leaf-stalk 
is attached to the branch or stem. 528, Magnified section of a leaf perpendicular to its surface; P, hair on 
the upper surface; ST, stoma; Es, epidermis of the upper surface made up of plate cells (§ 391); Ps, oval 
cells closely packed with longer ones perpendicular to the epidermis; M, interspace beneath tbe stoma; 
L, interspaces among the irregular shaped, loosely packed cells of the lower stratum Pi\ Fv, cross-section 
of fibro-vascular bundle ; Ei, lower epidermis with hairs. (See Figs. 489 to 500.) 

the tissues unites with substances found there, and 
new material for plant growth is thus formed ; in the 
night carbon dioxide is breathed out. It has been 
shown by experiment that air is not only required for 
the health of plants, but that they can not exist with- 
out it ; for when placed in a vacuum, they invariably 
perish. Respiration is therefore necessary to the life 
of plants as well as to animal life. 

428. Breathing goes on in all parts of plants ex- 
posed to the air, at night as well as in the daytime ; 



174 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

and at night especially oxj^gen is consumed and car- 
bon dioxide is set free. This fact has led to the in- 
ference that 

Potted plants in a living room render the air unfit 
to breathe ; but carefully conducted experiments have 
shown that one hundred ordinary stove plants would 
not injure the air of a moderate sized sitting or living 
room to an extent that could be in any way injurious. 

429. Metabolism is the name applied to the process 
which goes on in the structure of living plants that 
alters one kind of material of plant growth into an- 
other ; an example of which is the change of starch 
into cellulose. 

430. Assimilation is the process of taking into the 
plant's structure surrounding substances and convert- 
ing them into materials for plant growth, and consists 
mainly in changing inorganic substances into vegetable 
structure. The bulk of all woody plants is largely com- 
posed of carbon, hence assimilation in such plants con- 
sists mainly in disintegrating carbon dioxide, and ap- 
propriating the carbon. Assimilation is carried on in 
the cells of the green tissue and in sunlight. 

Some of the substances suspended in the watery 
fluids of plants and the constituents of water itself are 
used directly by the protoplasm in the preparation of 
food ; carbon dioxide, however, must first be decom- 
posed, in which process its oxygen is set free, and the 
carbon enters into the ligneous structure, or both oxy- 
gen and carbon enter into new combinations which the 
protoplasm can use. For example, water and carbon 
dioxide contain all the materials found in starch. 
These compounds having been separated into their 
constituents, the elements reunite in quantities that 



LEAF STRUCTURE. 175 

produce starch and other carbohydrates, as oils, sugars, 
gums, etc. These are either used to supply the plant's 
immediate wants or stored in some of its organs for 
future use. 

The decomposition of water and carbon dioxide lib- 
erates oxygen, which may be seen in bubbles on the 
submerged parts of water plants ; this gas escaping 
into the air, helps to keep it pure. 

431. Movements of fluids. — The root takes up from 
the earth the watery substances which are presented 
to it ; the cells at the extremities of the root and 
rootlets are first gorged ; these impart to the cells and 
vessels next in contact, which take up the fluids by in- 
filtration, and so they are passed on up the stem largely 
through the cells and vessels of the last season's wood, 
and outward through the same class of cells and 
ducts, along the branches to the leaves and new twigs. 
Having reached these green parts, much of the water 
passes off by evaporation ; what remains becomes 
changed by the action of sunlight and fitted for build- 
ing up the plant's structure. It then by some mode 
of transfusion finds its way back to all the growing 
parts of the plant where new material is needed. 

432. Circulation. — Careful observation and experi- 
ment have demonstrated that there is an upward cur- 
rent of water or watery fluids through the stem, by 
way principally of the fibro-vascular tissues ; but no 
downward movement has been detected answering to 
a current. Hence there is not a circulation which cor- 
responds to what takes place in the higher animals. 
Yet the prepared sap reaches parts of the plant's 
structure lower than the points where it was prepared ; 
hence it must go downward. 



176 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

How the elaborated sap passes back and even 
downward through the cells and vessels that are at 
the same time employed conveying the crude watery 
fluids up from the root is not understood. We are not 
acquainted with any physical or chemical force which 
causes the crude sap to creep through the cells and 
ducts of the trunks and branches of great trees, hun- 
dreds of feet in height ; nor is the transfusion of the 
prepared fluids and cell materials to every part of the 
plant's structure where food is required less difficult 
to explain. 

In fact, observation and experiment have thus far 
failed to account for these mysterious movements. 






CHAPTER VI. 

FEETILIZATION. 

433. The higher plants produce seeds, each of 
which contains an embryo of a new plant. The seed 
has already been defined as the ripened ovule or as 
the fertilized and mature ovule. The fertilization of 
the ovule is accomplished by the mingling of the 
protoplasm of the pollen cell with the protoplasm of 
the ovule, which is brought about in the following 
manner : 

434. Process of Fertilization. — The ripened anther 
opens and discharges its pollen grains, some of which, 
by the action of the wind or the aid of insects, reach 
the stigma ; when one has secured a lodgment, influ- 
enced by the moist surface of the stigma, it germi- 
nates, sends down through the tube of the style a 
tube as the radicle of the seed penetrates the earth 



FERTILIZATION. 



177 



(Chapter III., Introduction). This delicate tube pro- 
longs itself downward till it reaches the ovary, enter- 
ing it ; conies in contact with 
the ovule, which it penetrates, 
and discharges the proto- 
plasm of the pollen grain 
upon the protoplasm of the 
germ cell, or ovule, and thus 
fertilizes it. The protoplasm 
of the two cells having min- 
gled, the ovule ripens into a 
seed, in which resides the 
embryo of a new plant. 

The quantity of proto- 
plasm in the ovule or germ 
cell is greater than that con- 
tained in the pollen grain. 

435. Gamogenesis (Greek 
ydfjiog, marriage, yeveoig, pro- 
duction). — Formation by mar- 
riage is the name applied to 
this mode of fertilization. 

529, Section of the ovary of Polygonum Penn- 
436. Conjugation iS the sylvanicum, in process of fertilization. (Magni- 
fied 20 diameters.) c, Natural size; n, one of the 
name Of another mode, Which stamens, having discharged its pollen; «, a grain 

of pollen and its tube; s, styles and stigmas; o, 

IS aCCOmplished by the Union ovai 7> ovule > embryo sac containing the embry- 

-*- ^ onic globule. The extremity of a pollen-tube is 

of two similar cells side by seen in contact wkh the embr y° sac - 
side, the combination resulting in a germinating cell. 

43 7. The ovule fertilized becomes a new center of 
growth. First it expands to a proper cell, attached to 
the wall of the sac near the micropyle. It then, by 
division and subdivision, multiplies itself, and begins to 
take form according to the species, showing cotyledon, 
plumule, etc., until fully developed into the embryo. 




178 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTAJSTY. 



In the case of the Conifers (Pines, Cedars, Mrs), where no styles or stig- 
mas exist, the pollen falls directly into the microphyle of the naked ovule, 
and its tubes settle into the tissue of the nucleus. 

438. Germination. —The ovule matures with the 
completion of the embryo, and passes into the fixed 
state of the seed in which the embryo 
sleeps. A store of nutritive matter, 
starch, gluten, etc., is thoughtfully pro- 
vided in the seed for the use of the 
young plant in germination, until its 
root has gained fast 
hold of the soil. 

439. The changes 
which occur in the 
seed at the recom- 
mencement of growth 
are simply such as are 
requisite to reduce its 
dry deposits to a solu- 
tion which shall con- 
tain the proper ma- 
terials for cell-forma- 
tion or growth. Gluten 
and other nitrogenous matters, oil, starch, etc., are to 
be changed to diastase and dextrine. To accomplish 
this, water is taken up, oxygen absorbed, plant-food 
dissolved and moved to points where it is needed, and 
used in constructing new cells and tissues. 

440. Ripening of Fruits. —After the fruit has attained its full growth 
the process of ripening commences, during which the pulp becomes gradually 
sweetened and softened, chiefly by the change of the starch into more or less 
of soluble sugar. Thus ripening is to the pericarp what germination is to the 
seed. In its earliest stage the pericarp consists of structure similar to that of 
green leaves, composed of cellular, vascular, and woody tissues, and epider- 
mis and stomata. Its distended growth afterward results from the accumula- 
tion of the flowing sap, which here finds an axis incapable of extension. Thus 





530, Ovule of Viola tricolor, showing the process of fertili- 
zation; p, pollen; t, tube; r, raphe; c, chalaza; 6, primine; a, 
secundine; w, nucleus; s, sac, which the tube appears to have 
penetrated. 531, Growth of the embryo in Hippuris vulgaris. 
The fertilized cell has divided itself into several, of which c, b 
constitute the suspensor attached to the apex of the sac; a, em- 
bryo dividing into two, then into four cells. 



FERTILIZATION. 179 

arrested in its progress, it gorges the pistil and adjacent parts, is condensed by 
exhalation, assimilated by their green tissues, which still perform the office of 
leaves. Cell-formation goes on rapidly within, and the excess of cellulose is 
deposited in the cells as starch. Oxygen is usually absorbed in excess, acidi- 
fying the juices. 

441. In the same way we account for the produc- 
tion of honey in the flower. Copious deposits of starch 
are provided in the receptacle and disk (§85). At the 
opening of the flower, this is changed to sugar, to aid 
in the rapid development of those delicate organs 
which have no chlorophyl wherewith to assimilate 
their own food. The excess of sugar flows over in the 
form of honey. The wise economy of the honey is 
seen in fertilization. For, attracted by it, the insect 
enters the flower, rudely brushes the pollen from the 
now open anthers, and inevitably lodges some of its 
thousand grains upon the stigma ! 

442. Experiment has proved that in all these cases of the formation of 
sugar from starch, a molecule of water is absorbed— a process which we might 
expect, since starch (C ia H 20 10 ), or n(C 6 H 10 O s ) contains proportionably two 
less hydrogen and one less oxygen than sugar (Ci 2 H 22 On) contains. 

443. Pollination, cross-fertilization, etc. — Pollen is 
essential to the fertilization of the flower. It must 
not only be produced, but must also in some way be 
conveyed to the stigma, and lodged on its surface. 
Another requisite is that the pollen and pistil shall 
either be : 1st, parts of the same flower ; or, 2d, of other 
flowers of the same plant ; or, 3d, of the same species ; 
or, 4th, of closely related species. In the first and 
second cases the process may be called self-fertiliza- 
tion ; in the third case, cross-fertilization; in the 
fourth case, hybridization. 

444. Whether the first, second, or third process 
shall prevail in any given species will depend on the 



180 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 

structure, number, or arrangement of the floral organs. 
In the few flowers which never open, — the Cleisto- 
gamous, such as the late apetalous flowers of the Blue 
Violet, and also probably those of Gentiana Andrewsii, 
only self-fertilization is possible. But in the multitude 
of open flowers with both stamens and pistils exposed, 
as in the Lily, Rose, Morning G-lory, either self or cross 
fertilization is possible unless determined by some 
other special circumstance. The stigma may receive 
pollen directly from its own stamens, or indirectly 
from other flowers near or remote, through the agency 
of winged insects, humming-birds, or of the wind. 
Again there are flowers in which the organs are so 
situated that self-fertilization is very difficult, or even 
impossible. Of this class are the Asclepiads and 
Orchids, whose pollen, cohering in masses (pollinia), is 
inclosed in cavities, and only dragged forth by insects 
to be carried to other flowers. So in Iris, where the 
extrorse anthers and petaloid stigmas are averted from 
each other, the former beneath, and shedding its pollen 
downward. 

445. Dichogamous Plants. — In some species the 
stamens and pistils axe not cotemporary in the same 
plant, but the stamens of one plant mature at the 
same time with the pistils of another plant, and vice 
versa. This necessitates cross-fertilization, and the 
agency of the wind or of insects. We have examples 
in the Grasses, the common Plantain, in Scrophularia, 
etc. 

446. Dimorphous Plants are such as the Mints 
(Mentha), the Yellow Jessamine (Gelsemium), Hous- 
tonia caerulea, etc. In these the flowers assume two 
forms, with the stamens and pistils cotemporary in 



FERTILIZATION. 181 

both. In some the stamens are exserted and pistil 
included, while in others the stamens are included and 
style exserted. This arrangement also favors cross- 
fertilization through insect agency. 

447- The service thus performed by insects in be- 
half of vegetation is very important. Numerous spe- 
cies are wholly dependent on bees, moths, flies, for the 
dissemination of their pollen, and consequently for 
their very existence. Many other species, although 
capable of self-fertilization, are still greatly benefited 
by the intercrossings of pollen which the visits of 
insects occasion. Of course the bees have no idea of 
these benefactions. They visit the flowers solely for 
their own good. The nectar which they seek is always 
so situated as to oblige them to disturb the pollen or 
pollinia as they pass and repass, get besprinkled with 
it, and so encounter the stigmas from flower to flower. 

418. It would seem important that the bee or moth 
should confine its visits during any one excursion to 
plants of the same species. And this it often does, as 
shown by observation, avoiding the mingling of its 
nectars as well as the confusion of its pollens. In 
accomplishing this, the insect may be led by habit, 
becoming accustomed, for the hour, to one form of 
nectary ; or it may be drawn by uniform odor of the 
flowers, or by their gay and special colors. For we 
observe that the flowers of grasses and of forest trees 
whose pollen is wafted by the wind, requiring no aid 
from insects, are destitute both of bright colors and of 
fragrance, and of honey. 

449. From these observations and many others of 
similar import, it is inferred that Nature insists on the 
fertilization of the stigma in every plant by all means, 



182 



PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTAKY. 



at least when growing in its native home ; also, that 
of the two general modes, self, or cross, she greatly 
prefers the latter. 

450. What are the reasons for this preference? 
The solution of this inquiry has engaged the attention 
of many skillful investigators, until it seems to be 
proved that the offspring of cross-fertilization are as a 
rule decidedly superior in size, vigor, and variety. 






PART THIRD. 

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 

451. Systematic Botany has for its object the ar- 
rangement of Plants into Groups and Families accord- 
ing to their characters, for the purpose of facilitating 
the study of their names, affinities, habits, history, 
properties, and uses. In this department the prin- 
ciples of Organic and Physiological Botany are applied 
and brought into practical use. 

452. But there is another and higher import in the 
study of Systematic Botany. It shows us Plants as 
related to each other and constituting one magnificent 
system. It reveals the Almighty Creator at once em- 
ployed in the minutest details and upon the boundless 
whole ; equally attentive to the perfection of the indi- 
vidual in itself, and to the completeness of the System 
of which that individual forms a necessary part. 

453. The necessity for such, an arrangement of the Species will appear 
when we consider their immense number. They meet us in ever-varying 
forms at every step, clothing the hills, mountains, valleys, and plains. They 
spring up in hedges and by the way-side. They border the streams and lakes, 
and sprinkle over their surface. They stand assembled in forests, and cover 
with verdure even the depths of the Ocean. Xot less than 150,000 kinds are 
already distinguished, and the catalogue is still growing. 



184 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

454. Into this vast kingdom of Nature the student is introduced, and pro- 
poses to acquaint himself with each and every object. How shall he begin? 
Evidently he must begin with the individual — a single individual plant. But 
(thanks to Him who created both the plant and the mind — the object and the 
subject), he is not left to continue the study in a method so endless and so 
hopeless. As if in special regard to the measure of the human intellect and 
the means of its culture, the Great Author of Nature has grouped these 
myriads of individuals into the following divisions : 

455. Species are individuals of a common origin or 
parentage capable of producing their kind, though fre- 
quently differing from each other in size, form, and 
other unimportant characters. A species has been de- 
fined as a " succession of individuals which reproduces 
and perpetuates itself." 

456. Variety, or Race, is a sub-species. This term 
is applied to individual plants that possess marked 
variations from specific characters, but not of suffi- 
cient constancy to entitle them to the rank of species. 
These differences are frequently brought about by the 
quality of the soil or locality, but especially by culti- 
vation. 

Race characters are perpetuated and become con- 
stant by grafting, budding, and carefully selecting 
well-marked individuals from which to obtain seed. 

The desirable characters of most of our fruits and 
table vegetables are made constant in this way. 

457. Genus is the name for a Group of individual 
plants which resemble each other in the form and 
structure of their organs of Fructification and Repro- 
duction. 



Illustration.— The individuals of the Crowfoot Kind differ in the size and 
color of their flowers, some of which are yellow, others white ; in the size and 
form of their stems, some of which grow erect, others prostrate and in the 
shape of their leaves. Their organs of Fructification, however, are all con- 
structed upon the same plan, and the function of polination is performed in 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 18 5 

the same manner ; hence they are grouped together and constitute the Genus 
Ranunculus. 

458. Orders. — But natural affinities do not end here. The genera are yet 
too numerous for the ready and systematic study of the naturalist. He, there- 
fore, would generalize still further, and reduce the genera to still fewer and 
broader groups. On comparing the genera with each other, he finds that they 
also possess in common certain important characters which are of a more 
general nature than those which distinguish them from each other. By these 
general characters the genera are associated into Orders. 

459. For example : comparing such genera as the Mustard, Radish, Cab- 
bage, Cress, "Wallflower, etc., it is seen that, while they differ sufficiently in 
their generic characters, yet they all have certain marked resemblances in 
their didynamous stamens, siliquous fruit, whereby they are obviously asso- 
ciated in the same Order — the Cruciferse. So, also, the Pines, the Spruces, 
the Cedars, the Larches, and the Cypress, while as genera they are obviously 
distinct, yet all bear cones of some form, with naked seeds ; hence they are 
naturally grouped into one Order — the Coniferse. 

460. Classes. — In like manner the Orders, by traits of resemblance still 
more general, are associated in a few groups, each of great extent, called 



461. Intermediate Groups, formed on the same principles, are recog- 
nized as Subgenera, Suborders or Tribes, and Subclasses or Cohorts, which 
will be particularly noticed in another place. Of the same nature, also, are 
Varieties, which are groups subordinate to species, already described in § 28. 

462. Systems. — Two independent and widely dif- 
ferent methods of classifying the genera have been 
generally approved — the Artificial Method of Linnaeus, 
and the Natural System of Jussieu. The former is 
founded solely on characters relating to the organs of 
fructification, leaving all other natural affinities out of 
view. It is simply an arrangement devised by Linnaeus 
for convenience in the analysis of plants — as words in 
a dictionary, for convenience of reference, are arranged 
alphabetically, without regard to their nature. It is 
now superseded by — 

463. Th.e Natural System. — This method or system 
of classification, on the contrary, makes use of every 
natural character and takes for its basis all those 
natural affinities and resemblances of plants whereby 
Nature herself has distinguished them into groups and 



186 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 






families. It seizes upon every character wherein plants 
agree or disagree, and forms its associations only upon 
the principle of natural affinity. Hence, each member 
of any natural group resembles the other members ; 
and a fair description of one will serve, to a certain 
extent, for all the rest. 

464. The species and genera are formed on this 
principle of classification, as above stated, and are 
truly natural associations. Individuals altogether simi- 
lar — cast, as it were, in the same mold — constitute a 
species. Species agreeing in nearly all respects, and 
differing but in few, constitute a genus. Thence the 
genera, associated by their remaining affinities in 
groups of few or many, by this same method are 
organized into Natural Orders and other departments 
of the System. 



CHAPTER II. 

NATURAL SYSTEM. 

465. Botanists during the last two hundred years 
have labored to group and arrange the individuals of 
the vegetable kingdom so that the natural characters 
of each group shall be most like those of the next 
preceding group. 

466. In 1694, Tournefort, a French physician and 
botanist, published a method of arrangement in which 
he defined and established the term genus as we now 
understand it. 

467. Early in 1700, John Ray, an English natu- 
ralist, separated the vegetable kingdom into the fol- 
lowing general groups : 



NATURAL SYSTEM. 187 

I. Phanerogamia. — Plants that bear Flowers. 
II. Cryptogamia. — Plants that do not produce Flowers. 

Sub-divisions of Flowering Plants. 

1. Dicotyledones — Plants whose embryo has two seed 

leaves, or more than two. 

2. Monocotyledones — Plants whose embryo has one 

seed leaf. 

468. Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, in 1736, while 
only twenty years of age, published the outlines of 
his celebrated sexual system, based upon the num- 
ber, situation, and relative length of the pistils and 
stamens, which, though artificial and misleading, earned 
for its author a deathless fame. 

469. In 1789, A. L. de Jussieu, embodying the 
grand features of Ray with those of Tournefort, laid 
the foundation of the natural sj^stem which, under 
various modifications, has come down to us. 

470. August P. de Candolle greatly modified the 
arrangement of Jussieu, especially by reversing the 
sequence, placing the most highly organized plants 
first in order. 

The following is a brief sketch of the latest ar- 
rangement, and is substantially the one mapped out 
by Sachs ; the order of sequence, however, is changed : 

471. Phanerogamia. — Flowering plants, or plants 
whose flowers or organs of fructification are exposed 
to view. 

Plants of this class have roots, stems, and leaves 
through which bundles of woody fiber extend ; they 
bear flowers, in special parts of which reproductive 
organs are produced that form embryonic bodies 



188 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

called seeds; these seeds germinating, become new 
plants. 

472. Cryptogamia. — Flowerless plants or plants 
that do not produce seeds ; their reproductive appa- 
ratus forms cell-like bodies, without cotyledons, called 
spores, which germinate indifferently from any part of 
the cell ; these spore-like seeds of the Cryptogams 
germinating, produce new plants. 

These plants are called flowerless, because their 
organs of reproduction are concealed or obscure ; hence 
the name Cryptogamia, or concealed nuptials. 

KINQDOM. 

VEGETABLE SUB-KINGKDOM I. 

473. Phanerogamia. — Plants that bear proper flow- 
ers and produce seeds, derived from the Greek words 
(pavepog, open, and yd/uog, marriage, signifying open mar- 
riage. 

474. Class I. Dicotyledones. — Plants with two seed 
leaves or cotyledons. From the Greek words dig, two, 
and iioTiO.rjdGjv, a hollow disk, alluding to the shape of 
the coatings or walls of the seed leaves. 

475. Angiosperms. — ■ Plants whose seeds are in- 
closed in a pericarp or vessel. Prom the Greek ayyelov, 
a vessel, and o-rreppa, a seed, signifying plants whose 
seeds are inclosed by a covering ; as, the Apple, Maple, 
Oak, etc. 

476. Cohort 1, A. Polypetalae. — Dicotyledonous 
plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla ; 
corolla composed of separate petals, which are some- 
times slightly coherent at their bases ; as, the flowers 
of the Buttercup, Apple, Strawberry, etc. 

477. Cohort 2, B. Gamopetalse. — Dicotyledonous 



NATURAL SYSTEM. 189 

plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla, with 
petals more or less united ; as, Elder, Arrow-wood, etc. 

478. Cohort 3, C. Apetalae. — Dicotyledonous plants, 
whose flowers have a calyx but no corolla, and some- 
times neither ; as, Ragweed, Goosefoot, etc. 

479. Class II. Gymnosperms, Dicotyledones or Poly- 
cotyledones. — Plants whose seed is not inclosed by a 
vessel or pericarp, derived from the Greek words 
yvfiv6g 1 naked, and orcepfia, seed, naked seed. Stem 
elongated, solid ; leaves nearly parallel-veined ; flowers 
not perfect ; pistil scale-like ; no stigma ; ovules not 
inclosed in a vessel ; embryo with two or more oppo- 
site or whorled cotyledons. 

480. Cohort 4, D. Coniferae. — Pines, Spruces, and 
other cone-bearing trees and shrubs. 

481. Class III. Monocotyledones. — Plants whose em- 
bryo has one cotyledon, or one seed leaf. Greek f-iovog^ 
alone or one, and KorvXrjdov. Blade of the leaf usually 
divided into two parts by a prominent midrib, with veins 
extending from the base to the apex parallel to the 
midrib ; flowers usually three-parted ; root not axial. 

This class is separated into three cohorts. 

482. Cohort 5, E. Spadiciflorae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants, with flowers on a spadix, frequently enveloped 
by a spathe ; Palms, Calla, and pond weeds. 

483. Cohort 6, F. Petaloideae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants whose flowers are usually perfect and complete ; 
floral envelope three-parted and double ; outer whorl 
colored green ; as, Lily, Lily of the Valley, etc. 

484. Cohort 7, G. Glumiferae. — Monocotyledonous 
plants whose floral envelope is chaff-like ; ovary single, 
with one ovule ; as, grass-like plants, Wheat, Rye, the 
Sedges, etc. 



190 



SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 




Fig. 532, c, A Fern ; Polypodium vulgare. a, Club-moss ; Lycopodium dendroideum. &, Equisetum 
(Scouring Rush or Horse Tail). d, a Liverwort Moss ; Marchantia. e, a Fungus or Mushroom ; 
Agaricus, in three stages of growth. 

STJB-KTNQ-DOM II. 

485. Cryptogamia. — Plants that do not produce 
proper flowers. From the Greek Kpynrog, hidden, and 
yd\ioq^ marriage. 

486. Class I. Pteridophyta. — Vascular cryptogams — 
Ferns and their allies. From Greek words Ttrepi^ a 
fern, and fyvrov, a plant, signifying a fern-like plant. 

This class is divided into three cohorts. 

487. Cohort 1, H. Lycopodinae (Club Mosses). — 
Stem herbaceous, rooting at the nodes and creeping, 
simple or branched, sometimes tree-shaped ; foliage 
small ; leaf one-nerved ; fructification at the base of 
the leaf or in terminal catkins on the branches. Name 
from Greek words Xvicog, a wolf, and rrovg, a foot, due 
to the fancied resemblance of the roots to the foot of 
a wolf. 



NATURAL SYSTEM. 191 

488. Cohort 2, I. Equisetacae (Horse Tails). — Stem 
straight, simple or branched, cylindrical, channeled ; 
stiff-jointed ; sheathed at the joints ; tops of the 
sheaths toothed. From Latin equus, a horse, and seta, 
a bristle or hair ; Equisetum, scouring rush. 

489. Cohort 3, J. Filicinae. — Ferns proper. Stem 
a horizontal creeping rhizome, sometimes erect ; foli- 
age pinnate or variously divided ; veins forked ; fructi- 
fication on the back or edge of the frond. Name from 
Latin filix, a fern ; Osmunda, Flowering Fern. 

the following- five classes 

are not treated in this book, and therefore will be 
briefly noticed only. 

490. Class II. Bryophyta. — Mosses and their allies 
(Greek fipvov, a moss, <pvr6v, a plant). 

Sub-class 1. Hepaticse, Liverworts. 
Sub-class 2. Musci, Mosses. 

491. Class III. Carpophyta. — Spore-fruited plants 
(Greek ttaprroq, fruit, (pvrov). 

Sub-class 1. Coleochaeteae, Green fresh-water plants 
with few spores. 

Sub-class 2. Florideae, Red or purple marine plants. 
Sub-class 3. Ascomycetes, Parasites, spores in sacs. 
Sub-class 4. Basidiomycetes, Spores on stalks. 
Sub-class 5. Characeae, Green fresh-water plants. 

492. Class IV. Oophyta. — Plants with egg-shaped 
spores (Greek (bov, an egg, and 6vt6v). 

Sub-class 1. Zoosporae, Spore cells locomotive. 
Sub-class 2. CEdogoniese, Thread-like cellular body. 
Sub-class 3. Coeloblasteae, Thread-like tubular body. 
Sub-class 4. Fucacese, Large, color olive green. 

493. Class V. Zygophyta. — Unisexual plants (Greek 



192 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

fyyov, a pair, and (j>vr6v) J plants in which the sexes are 
united. 

Sub-class 1. Zoospores, Cells capable of motion. 

Sub-class 2. Conjugatae, Cells fixed. 

494. Class VI. Protophyta.— First or most simple 
class of plants (Greek rrpw-o^ first, and 6vt6v), These 
plants are the lowest vegetable organisms, and consist 
of single cells, or strings of cells. 

Sub-class 1. Myxomycetes, Slime molds, naked pro- 
toplasm, without regular form. 

Sub-class 2. Schizomycetes, Bacteria minute cells. 
Sub-class 3. Cyanophyceae, Green Slimes. 

495. Orders or Families succeed to the Cohorts. 
The Natural Order is perhaps the most important of 
all the associations. On the accuracy and distinct- 
ness of the characters of these groups botanists have 
bestowed the highest degree of attention, and the 
student's progress will largely depend upon his acquaint- 
ance with them. 

496. Orders are formed by associating together 
those genera which have the most intimate relations 
to each other, or to some one genus previously as- 
sumed as the type. As species form genera, so 
genera form Orders. In regard to extent, they differ 
widely ; some consisting of a single genus, as, Plata- 
naceae, while others comprehend hundreds of genera, 
as, Compositse. For convenience in analysis, the larger 
Orders are broken up into Sub-orders or Tribes. 

The Mowering plants of the whole world, known to botanists, have been 
grouped under 200 Orders, 7,500 G-enera, and 100,000 species. About 80,000 of 
these species are Dicotyledons, and the remaining 20,000 are Monocotyledons. 

It is a high accomplishment in a botanist to possess an extensive ac- 
quaintance with individual plants. The ability to determine readily the genus 
and species to which a plant belongs depends largely upon an accurate knowl- 
edge of the characters of the orders and tribes. 



RULES IN NOMENCLATURE. 193 

497. The Natural System, then, with all its divis- 
ions, groups, and subordinations, may be exhibited 
at one view, as follows : 
Kingdom, 
Sub-kingdoms, 
Classes, 
Cohorts, 
Orders, 
Sub-orders, or 
Tribes, 
Genera, 
Sub-genera, 
Species, or 
Races. 



CHAPTER III. 

RULES in nomenclature. 

498. The Names of the Orders are Latin adjectives, 
feminine, plural (to agree with plantce, plants, under- 
stood), usually derived from the name of the most 
prominent, or leading genus, by changing or prolong- 
ing the termination into acece, as JRosacece, the Rose 
tribe, Papaveracece, the Poppy tribe, from Rosa and 
Papaver. Earlier names, however, derived from some 
leading character in the Order, and with various ter- 
minations, are still retained. Thus, Compositce, with 
compound flowers ; LaMatce, with labiate flowers. 

499. Generic Names are Latin substantives, arbi- 
trarily formed, often from some medicinal virtue, either 
supposed or real, or from some obvious character of 
the genus ; sometimes from some peculiar form of the 
flower, or from the name of some distinguished bot- 



194 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 

anist, or patron of botany, to whom the genus is thus 
said to be dedicated. Also the ancient classic names, 
either Latin or Greek, are often retained. Examples of 
all these modes of construction will be seen hereafter. 

500. Specific Names are usually Latin adjectives, 
singular, and agreeing in gender with the name of the 
genus to which they belong. They are mostly founded 
upon some distinctive character of the species ; as, Viola 
blanda, Sweet-scented Violet ; V. cucullata, Hood-leaved 
Violet. Frequently the species is named after some 
other genus, which, in some respect, it resembles ; as, 
Viola delphinifolia, Larkspur Violet. 

501. Commemorative Specific Names. — Species, like 
genera, are also sometimes named in commemoration 
of distinguished persons. The rules given by Lindley, 
for the construction of such names, are : 1st. If the 
person is the discoverer, the specific name is a sub- 
stantive in the genitive case, singular number ; as, 
Viola Selkirkii, Selkirk's Violet ; Lobelia Kalmii, 
Kalm's Lobelia. 2d. If the name is merely conferred 
in honor of the person to whom it is dedicated, it is 
an adjective ending in nus, na, or num (according to 
the gender of the generic name) ; as, Tulipa Oesneri- 
ana, G-esnerian Tulip, or Q-esner's Tulip ; Erica Lin- 
neana, Linnaeus' Heath. 

502. Rules for the use of Capitals. — The names of 
the order, the sub-order or tribe, and of the genus, 
should always commence with a capital letter. The 
name of the species should never commence with a 
capital except in the following cases: (1), when it is 
derived from the name of a person or of a country, as 
Phlox Lrummondii, Aquilegia Canadensis; (2), when 
it is a substantive, as Delphinium Consolida,. 



BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 195 

503. Synonyms.- Very frequently, the same species has been described 
by different (or even by the same) authors, under different names. In such 
cases it becomes a question, often of difficult solution, which name is to be 
adopted. Obviously, the prior name, that is, the original one, if it can be 
ascertained, is entitled to the most respect; and it is a rule with botanists 
to adopt this name, unless it has been previously occupied, or be strongly 
objectionable on some other account. All other names are synonyms. 

504. Authorities.— In the flora which accompanies this work, immediately 
after the G-enus we insert the abbreviated name of the author by whom it 
was originally published, with a comma between, thus: Trifolium, Tourn. 
After a species the authority is inserted without a co??i?na, as T. repens L.,— 
that is to say, Trifolium repens (of) Linnaeus. In changing the generic rela- 
tions of a species (as subsequent writers often deem necessary), it is a custom 
for the author of the change to annex his own name, or a blank, instead of 
the original authority. The custom is often unjust, and always liable to 
abuse. It offers a bribe for innovations in the G-enera, and recent works 
abound in changes which otherwise could scarcely be accounted for. When 
such changes become necessary, the just and proper rule (actually adopted in 
Conchology) is the following. Let the original specific name and authority both 
be retained, the latter in parenthesis, thus, Lychnis Grithago (Linn.) — origi- 
nally Agrostemma G-ithago Linn. This method is often but not always used 
in the present work. 

Authorities for our species of exotic cultivated plants, for want of space, 
have all been here omitted. 



CHAPTER IV. 

BOTAXICAL ANALYSIS. 

505. Botanical Analysis is the application of the 
rules and principles of botany to the study of the 
natural plant, in order to determine its place in the 
system, its names, history, uses — all that is on record 
concerning it. In the flowering months, the learner 
will constantly meet with new forms of bloom ; and 
if he is duly interested in the science, he will not 
fail to seize and analyze each new flower while the 
short hour of its beauty may last. Thus in a few 
seasons, or even in one, he may become well acquainted 
with the flora of the vicinity where he dwells. 

506. Suppose, now, the pupil to be in possession 
of an unknown plant in flower and fruit. The first 



196 SYSTEMATIC BOTAKY. 

requisite is, its Natural Order, and the first step in 
analysis is an examination of the several organs, one 
by one, until the general structure is well understood. 
This done, the experienced botanist, who has in mem- 
ory the characters of all the Orders, might determine 
at once to which of them the plant in question belongs. 
But the beginner must be content with a longer course 
of inquiry and comparison, — a course which might be 
indefinitely long and vague without the use of — 

507. Analytical Tables. — These are designed to 
shorten and define to exactness the processes of anal- 
ysis. Those which appear in the present work are 
peculiar in form, and more copious and complete than 
the tables of any other similar work. These tables, 
with proper use in connection with the specimen, will 
very rarely fail to conduct the inquirer almost imme- 
diately to the right Order, Genus, and Species. 

We subjoin a few examples of the analysis of par- 
ticular species by the aid of these tables. If the exer- 
cise be conducted in the class-room, the successive 
steps in the process (indicated by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 
etc., below) may be assigned, in order, to each pupil 
in the class. 

ANALYSIS OF A POLYPETALOTJS HERB. 

508. To determine the Cohort. — A good specimen of a little yellow- 
flowered herbaceous plant, common in the grassy fields of cool regions, is sup- 
posed to be now in the hands of each pupil of the class. (1.) The first pupil, 
reading (if necessary) the characteristic of each sub-kingdom, pronounces the 
plant one of the Phaenogamia, and refers the next pupil to the Classes I., 
II., or m. 

(2.) The next reads the characters of those Classes, and comparing the 
specimen (which has net-veined leaves and 5-merous flowers), concludes that it is 
an Exogen. Refer next to the Class I. 

(3.) "Stigmas present. Seeds inclosed in vessels." 

" Stigmas none. Seeds naked. (Pines, Spruces, etc.) " Our plant has 
stigmas, etc., and, moreover, is not a Pine, Spruce, etc. It is, therefore, an 
Angiosperm. Befer next to Cohorts 1, 2, or 3. 



BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 197 

(4.) "Corolla with, the petals distinct." This characterizes our plant, and 
it is pronounced one of the Polypetalce. Refer them to A. 

509. To determine the Order, the (5th) pupil reads the first alternative, 
or triplet, noted by a star (*), and comparing his plant, finds it to corre- 
spond with the first line, for it is an "herb with alternate leaves." Pass now 
to (12). 

(6.) "Flowers regular or nearly so. Fruit never a legume." 

"Mowers irregular," etc. The flower is regular. Pass to (14). 

Again, a (7th) pupil reads, "Stamens 3 — 10 times as many as the petals." 
"Stamens few and definite." The stamens are many. Pass to (15). 

(8.) The next pupil reads, compares, and determines that the stamens are 
"perigynous on the base of the calyx," and announces the letter (d) as the 
reference to the next alternative. (9.) Next, the pupil reads and compares 
his specimen with the triplet (tf), and concludes that the sepals are 5, and 
imbricated in the bud. Consequently, it is announced that the plant in hand 
belongs to the Order ROSACEA. 

510. To determine the Genus. —After a careful comparison of their 
specimen with the diagnosis of the Roseworts (Order 44), in order to verify 
the analysis thus far, the learner or the class will then consult the table of 
the G-enera. (10.) A pupil reads the couplet marked A, and determines that 
the "Ovary is superior, fruit not inclosed," etc. Pass to (a). 

(11.) "Carpels 00. Calyx persistent, with 5 bractlets added," characterizes 
our plant. Pass to (/), which is Tribe V. Pass on to (g). (12.) The next 
pupil determines that the "style is deciduous." Pass to (£)• (13.) "Torus 
spongy or dry," is true of our specimens. Pass to (I). (14.) "Bractlets 5" 
reads the next, and announces the plant to be a Potentilla. Now all turn to 
G-enus 13, and together verify this result by reading and comparing the stated 
character of the genus. 

511. To determine the Species. — (15.) As our plant has " stamens 00 
and flowers yellow" it must be a true Potentilla. Pass to (a), (16.) "Leaves 
palmately 3-foliate " suits our plant. It is, therefore, either species No. 3, 4, 
or 5. Lastly (17), after a due comparison of their plant with each of these 
three species, it is determined that it is P. Korvegica. 

ANALYSIS OP A MONOCOTYLEDON. 

512. A grass-like, blue-flowered herb is now supposed to have been dis- 
covered and distributed to the Class for analysis. Having (1) determined 
that it is a Monocotyledon (for it has " parallel- veined leaves and 3-parted 
flowers "), they would now (2) determine its Class, which is HI. 

"Flowers without glumes, and colored," etc. 

"Flowers with green alternate glumes, and no perianth." The first line 
is adopted, and the plant agrees with Petaloidese. Pass next to (t) Cohorts 
5th or 6th, and read, 

(3.) "Cohort 5. Flowers on a spadix, apetalous or incomplete." 

"Cohort 6. Flowers complete, with a double perianth " — which 
answers to the specimens in hand, and it is seen to belong to the Petaloideae. 
Pass to F. 

(4.) The next pupil having read and compared the first couplet under 
"F, Cohort 6, Petaloideae," chooses the second line. Pass to No. 2. (5.) 
"Perianth tube adherent to the ovary" is adopted. Pass to (4). (6.) "Flow- 



198 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 






ers perfect." The second line of this couplet is true of our plant. Next pass 
to (&). The (7.) pupil reads "Anthers 3 or 6," which is true of the plant. 
Pass to (<?). (8.) " Perianth glabrous outside " is true. Next read (d). (9.) 
"Anthers 3, opening lengthwise, outward," is also true, and our plant is thus 
traced to the order Iridace^e. 

513. To determine the G-enus and Species under the Irids, Order 146, is 
the next and the last step. Having carefully compared their specimens with 
the characters ascribed to the Irids, the pupils next apply to the Table of the 
G-enera. (10.) "Mowers regular and equilateral," in the first dilemma, is 
chosen. Read the (*) couplet next. (11.) " Sepals similar to the petals in 
form, size, and position " is true. Next to {a). (12.) " Stamens monadelphous. 
Mowers small, blue. Plants grass-like," describes the plant truly, and it must 
be a Sisyrhinchium. They turn to G-enus 7, and verify by reading its char- 
acters. Lastly, the brief diagnoses of the two species are compared, and the 
plant is found to be S. Bermudiana. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



a (a, privative), prefixed to a Greek word, 

signifies without; as aphyllous, without 

leaves. 
ab bre vi a'tions, page 3, Part IV. 
a bor tion, non- development of apart. 
ab sOrp tion, 199. 
aVau les'cent, or a eau les'cent, apparently 

s't'emless, 223. 
ae ces so ry, something superadded. 
ac cres'cent, grov:ing after flowering, 109. 
a« cuni'bent, lying against a thing, 183. 
ac'er ose or ac'er oiis, needle-shaped, 299. 
a che'ni um. plural, a che ni a, 151. 
ach'la myd'e ous, without floral envelopes. 
a cic'u. lar, finely needle-shaped . 
a cot y led'o nous, without cotyledons. 
aero gens, summit growers. 
a cu'le ate, armed with prickles. 
a cu'mi nate, drawn out into a point, 307. 
a cute', ending in a sharp angle, 307. 
ad her'ent, growing to, 82, 94. 
M'nate, growing fast to, 114. 
ad venti tious, growing out of the usual or 

normal position, as roots. 208. 
a er a tion. same as respiration, 483. 
a?s ti vation, 335. 

af fin i ty. resemblance in essential organs. 
age of trees. 47. 

ag'gre gate, assembled close together. 
a glu nia'ceous. without glumes, the same as 

pet al oid, 483. 
air-bladders, 323. 
air-plants, 208. 
a'la, wing ; a'la 3 , icings, 101. 
a' late, winged, 274. 
al bu'men, 179. 
al bii'mi nous, 178. 
al bur'num, sap-wood, 418. 
al gas, seaweeds. 
al'ter nate, 215, 262. 

al ye o late, with pits like the honey-comb. 
am'ent, a deciduous spike. 357. 
a mSr'phous, without definite form. 
am phit ro pous. 141. 
am plex'i caul, stem- clasping, 275, 311. 
a nary sis, botanical, 510. 
a nas to mo sis, reunion of vessels or veins. 
anat'ro pous, 141. 
an clp i tal, two-edged. 
an ane'eium, 110. 
an drSg y nous, stamens and pistils on the 

same peduncle. 
an'ei o sperms. 475. 
an i mal, 15. 

an'nu al, yearly (sc. plants), 40. 
an'rm lar cells, 378. 
an te ri or. parts {of a flower) adjacent to the 

bract. 
an tbel min'tic. expelling or killing worms. 
an'ther, 111, 113. 



an the'sis, the opening of the flower ; flower- 
ing. 

a pet'a la?. 478. 

a pet'al oris, without petals. 

aph'yl loiis or a phyl'lous, without leaves. 

a poph'y sis, a swelling, e. g., under the 
thecce of some mosses. 

ap pa ra'tus, 4. 

ap pen dic'u lar organs, 77. 

ap pressed', closely applied but not adhering 
to : the same as adpressed. 

ap'ter ous, without wings. 

a quat'ic, living in water. 

a rach'noid, resembling cobwebs. 

ar'bor ous, arborescent, tree-like. 

arc u ate, arched or curved like a bow. 

a re'o iate, having the surface divided into 
little spaces or areas. 

ar'il, an extra seed-covering. 175. 

a ris tate, with an arista or awn {barley). 

armed, bearing prickles, spines, etc. 

ar ti€'u lat ed. jointed, as the culm of wheat. 

as cend'mg, ai^ising obliquely : assurgent. 

as cid' i a, leaves holding water, 322. 

as sim'i la'tion, 430. 

at ten'u ate, becoming slender or thin. 

au ric'u late, ear-beanng, 291. 

awn. the beard of barley and the like. 

ax i al root, 200. 

ax il {arm-pit), the angle between the petiole 
and the branch, on the upper side. 

ax il la ry, groicing out of the axils. 

axis, ascending, 211, 212; erect, procumbent, 
prostrate, trailing, decumbent, 212; excur- 
rent, solvent, 226 ; descending, 197. 

baVcate. berry-like; covered with pulp. 

banner, same as vexillum, 101. 

ban'van tree, 207. 

bark, 416. 

^as'i lar, basal, attached to the base, 138. 

bast-cells, wood-cells of bark. 416. 

beaked, ending in an extended tip. 

beard'ed, with tufts of long, iceak hairs. 

berry, 159. 

bi. bis, twice (in compound woj'ds^. 

bi'col or. tico- colored. 

bi cuspid ate, with two points or cusps. 

bi den'tate, with two teeth. 

bi en'ni al, of two years. 41. 

bifid, cleft into two parts. 

bi foli ate, with two leaflets. 

bi f ar'cate, twice forked, or merely forked. 

bi la'bi ate, two-lipped. 

bi nate, 303. 

bi pin'nate, 304. 

bi pin nSt'i fid, twice pinnatifid '. (Fig. 342.) 

bi ter'nate, twice ternate, 305. 

bi valved, two-valved. 

blade. See lamina, 271. 



200 



INDEX AND GLOSSAKY. 



blanched plants, whitened for the want of 

light. 
bloom, a fine white powder, on some plants. 
border, 91, 92. 
botany denned, 18. 
botany, elementary, 20, 368, etc. 
botany, physiological, 21, 368. 
botany, systematic, 22, 153. 
braeh'i ate, with opposite, spreading branches 

(arms). (Fig. 275.) 
braet, 329, 345. 
braVte ate, having bracts. 
braVte Oles or bractlets, 345. 
branches, 34, 214. 
bristles, stiff, sharp hairs. 
bry Sph'y ta, 490. 
bud, 33. 
budding, 259. 

buds, axillary, 247 ; accessory, 250. 
buds, adventitious, 251. 
buds, suppression of, 248. 
bud-scales, 216. 319. 
bulb, 240 ; tunicated, 242 ; scaly. 242. 
bulb lets, 260. 

ca du'cous, dropping off early, 103. 

caes'pi tose, forming tufts or turf. 

caTce o late, slipper -shaped. 

cal'y cine, calyx-like. 

ca lyc'u late, having an outer calyx or calyx- 
like involucre. 

ca lyp'tra, the hood of the sporange {spore- 
case) of a moss. 

caiyxj the outer floral envelope, 51. 

cam'bi tim. 417. 

cam pan'u late, bell-shaped, 102. 

cam'py lot'ro potis, 141. 

can'a lic'u late, channeled. 

ca nes'cent, grayish ivhite. 

cap'il la ry, capillaceous, hair-shaped. 

cap'i tate, head-shaped, growing in close clus- 
ters or heads. 

ca pit'u lum, a little head, 301. 

cap 're o late, bearing tendrils. 

capsule, 167. 

«ar bon dl 5x'ide, 411. 

cari'na, 101. 

car'i nate, boat-shaped, having a sharp ridge 
beneath. 

car'pel. carpellary, 126. 

car'po phore, 149, 151. (Fig. 177.) 

car ti lag'i nous, firm and tough in texture, 
like cartilage. 

car'un cle, 175. 

car y o phyl la'ceous, 100. 

car y op' sis, 1E3. 

cat'kin, 357. (See ament.) 

cau'dex, 227. 

caules'cent, 223. 

cau'lis, 223. 

cau line, relating to the stem, 262. 

ceTlu lar tissue, 396. 

cell, 368. 

cell-growth, 377-384. 

cel'lu lar bark, 416. 

gel'lu lose, 371. 

cen trif u gal inflorescence, 35. 

cen trlp'e tal inflorescence, 352. 

ceph'a loiis, same as capitate. 

ce're al, relating to grains, corn, etc. 

cer nu ous, nodding (less inclined than pen- 
dulous). 

chaff, chaffy, 349. (See paleaceous ) 

€ha la'za, 140. 

channeled, hollowed out like a gutter. 



ehar ta'ceous, with the texture of paper. 

chlo'ro phyl, 373, 381, 435. 

chor'i sis, 76. 

cll'i ate, fringed with marginal hairs. 

91'on or sion, 218. 

ci ne're otis, ashy gray, ash color. 

clr'ci nate, rolled inward from the top, 255. 

cir cu la'tion of sap, -32. 

cir'cum scis'sile, 149. 

cir'rhose, furnished with a tendril. 

cirrhose roots, 208. 

classes, natural, £01. 

elas si fl ca'tion, artificial, 503. 

cla'vate, club-shaped. 

co arct'ate or CO arc tate, contracted, drawn 

together. 
eoVsus, a berry ; eoe el (plural), the 1-seeded 

carpels of separable fruits. 
coehie ate, spiral, like the snail-shell. 
co he sion, 82. 
co'horts, 461. 

col lat'er al, placed side b-y side. 
coTlum, 199. 
col'ored, of any color except green, which in 

botany is not a color, while white is. 
coTumn, the combined stamens and styles. 
€5'ma, 173. 
cQm'mis sure, the joined faces of the carpels 

of the cremocarp, 151. 
com'mon, belonging alike to several. 
complete flower, 60. 
com'pli cate, folded up upon itself. 
compound leaf, 300. 
compound flower, 348. 
com pressed', fattened on the sides, 274. 
con du'pli cute, folded on itself lengthwise. 
cone, 169. 

con'flu ent, uniting; same as coherent, 
con gl5m'er ate, clustered or crowded. 
con'ju gate, coupled, joined by pairs. 
con' nate, 311. 

con nec'tile, connective, 113, 114. 
con niv'ent, converging, coming together. 
con tin'u ous, the reverse of jointed, 
con tort'ed, twisted, 338. 
con'vo lute, 256, 339. 
cOr'date, heart-shaped, 291. 
cD'ri a'ceous, leather-like, 315. 
c6rm, 239. 

cSr'ne'ous, horn-like in texture. 
cor nic'u late, with a small hern or spur. 
co roTla, 52, etc. 

c5r'ol line, pertaining to the corolla. 
co rO'na, crown. 
c6r'ti cal bark, 416. 
c5r'ymb, co ryrn'bose, 358. 
cQs'tate, ribbed, with rib like ridges. 
c5t y le'dons, 180, 320. 
cras'su la, a genus of plants, C3. 
era ter'i f6rm, of the form of a goblet. 
creep'er, creeping stems, 231. 
srem €arp', 151. 

ere 'nate, bordered with rounded teeth. 
cren'u late, 309. 

crest'ed or cris'tate, with an elevated ridge. 
cris'pate or crisped, 310. 
crown of the root, 236. 
cru/ci f6rm (corolla), 100. 
crude sap, 368. 

crus ta'ceous, hard, thin, and brittle. 
cryp to ga'mia, 472. 
cu'cul late, rolled up into a hood shape. 
culm, the straw of grasses, 224. 
eu'ne ate, cu'ne 1 form, wedge-shaped, 220. 
cup-shaped, 102. 









INDEX A> T D GLOSSARY. 



201 



cu'pule, a little cup (sc. acorn), 155. 
cus'pi date, with a sharp, stiff point, 307. 
cu'ti €le, outer lamina of wall of epidermis, 

399. 
cy an'ic, blue, or any color except yellow 
cy ath'i f6rin, cup-shaped. 
cycle {in Phyllotaxy), 263, 264. 
cv clO'sis, same as Rotation, currents in the 

cell. 
cyme, cymous. 363. 
Sym'bi f6nn, boat-shaped. 
9yp'sel a, 151. 

dec a (in Greek composition), ten. 

de cid H ous, falling at the end of the season. 

deVli nate, bent downward. 

de'com pound', much compounded or divided, 
304. 

de cum 'bent, 212. (Fig. 249 ) 

de current, 274. 

de ctis'sate (leaves), opposite, and the pairs at 
right angles, 

def i nite, 118. 

de flex'ed, bent downward. 

de fo li a'tion, the casting off of leaves. 

dehiscence, 113, 148. 

del i ques'cent (axis), same as solvent), 226. 

del'to id, /orm of the Greek letter a, £83. 

den'droid, tree-like inform. 

den'dron (in Greek compounds',, a tree. 

den'tate, 309. 

den tre'u late, 309. 

de nii'ded, become naked. 

de pauper ate, less developed than usual. 

de pend'ent, hanging down. 

de pressed', flattened from above ; low. 

dex'trine, a gummy substance produced by 
the action of diastase upon starch. 

dex'trorse (twining), turning to the right. 

di (in Greek numerals), two. 

di a delphoiis, 120. 

di ag nO'sis, a brief statement of the distinc- 
tive character of a plant or group. 

di aph'a nous, transparent or translucent. 

di an' drous, with two stamens, 118. 

di'as tase, a peculiar ferment in malt, alter- 
ing starch into dextrine. 

di cnog'a mous, 445. 

di €h5t'o mous, forked or two-forked. 

dic'linous, G7. 

di ?5t'y le dons, dicotyledonous, 182, 284. 

did'y mous, double. 

di dyn'a mous, 119. 

dif fuse', much divided and spreading. 

dig'i tate, with several distinct leaflets pal- 
mately arranged (as in the leaf of the 
Horse-chestnut). 

di mid'i ate {anther), halved, 114. 

di mor phous planis. 446. 

di oe'cioiis {flowers) * 67. 

dip ter oiis, having two wings. 

disk, 85, 362. 

dis'-eoid, no rays. (Fig. 446.) 

disk-bearing tissue, 401 . 

dis sect'ed, cut into deep lobes. 

dis sep'i ment, same as partition, 132. 

dis'ti-eh ous, arranged in two rows. 

dis tinct, separate, not united, 82. 

di var'i cate, widespread, straggling. 

di ver'gent, spreading with a less angle. 

dor'sal, on or relating to the back. 

dotted cells, 384. 

dotted ducts, 406. 

double terms, 301. 

downy, clothed with short, weak hairs. 



drupe, 156. 

drupa'ceus. (See tryma.) 

drying-press, 6. 

ducts. 402. 

du'pli cate. in pairs, double. 

du ra'men, heart- wood, 418. 

dwarfing. (Fig. *50, d.) 

E, ex (in composition), without ; as. 

e brae'te ate, without bracts. 

ech'I nate, prickly with rigid hairs. 

ef fete, sterile, exhausted. 

el'a ters, spiral, elastic threads accompanying 

certain spores. 
el lip 'tic. elliptical (leaf), 289. 
e 15n ga ted, lengthened, extended. 
e mar'gi nate, 307. 
em'bry o, 31, 180. 
embryo sac, 142. 
en do carp, 156. 
en'do chrome, the coloring matter of plants. 

See chlorophyl. 
en dQg'e nous structure, 421. 
en'do gens, 180, 421, 422, 424. 
en do pleura, same as tegmen, 172. 
en dos' mOse, a thrusting, which causes 

liquids of different densities to pass through 

thin membranes, and mingle. 
en si foTni, sword-shaped, S&7. 
entire, even-edged, 308. 
e phern'e ral, enduring for one day. 
ep'i (in Greek composition), upon ; as. 
ep'i carp. 156. 

ep'i derm is, outside layer of cells, 391. 
e pig'y nous, upon the ovary, 97, 119. 
ep'i pet' al ous, on the petals, 119. 
epi \j>h$te&, plants on other plants, 208. 
ep'i sperm, the skin of the seed. 
eq'ui tant (astraddle), 258. 
e rose', eroded, as if gnawed, 310. 
e tae'rl 5, 158. 

e'ti o la ted, colorless for want of light. 
ex'al bii'mi nous, without albumen, 178. 
ex ciir'rent, 226. 
ex 5g'e nse, exogens. 182. 
ex 5g'e nous structure, 416-418. 
ex'os mOse, flowing out. 
ex sert'ed, projecting out of, or beyond. 
ex stip'ii late, without stipules, 272. 
extra (in composition), beyond ; as. 
extra- axillary, same as supra axillary, 
ex trCrse', turned outward, 114. 

falcate, scythe-shaped, curved. 

far'i na'caous, flour-like in texture. 

far'i nous, mealy on the surface. 

fas'ci -ele, a bundle, 365. 

fas cic'u late (leaves), 262. 

feath'er- veined, 285. 

fer ru'gi nous, of the color of iron-rust. 

fer'tile (flower), seed-producing, 67. 

fer'ti li za'tion, etc., 433, 434, 447. 

fib'ril \se,flbrils, 199, 428. 

flT a ment, the stalk of a stamen, 111, 112. 

fil i ci'nae. 

fill f6rm, slender like a thread. 

fim'bri ate, fringed, having the edge bordered 

ivith slender processes. 
fis'sion. a splitting into parts. 
fist'u lar, hollow, as the leaf of onion. 
fla beTli f6rm, fan-shaped, 298. 
fla gel li f6rm, whip-shaped; long, taper, and 

supple. 
fla ves'cent, yelloivish, turning yellow. 
flex'u. ous, zig-zag or wavy. 



202 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



floe -eOse', with hairs in soft fleecy tufts. 
flO'ra, (a) the spontaneous vegetation of a 

country ; (b) a written description of the 

same, 23. 
floral, relating to flowers. 
floral envelopes, 50, 87. 
florets, the flowers of a compound flower, 

382., 
flow'er, 49, etc.: origin of, 37. 
flower-bud, 244, 335, etc. 
foil a'ceous, leaf -like in texture or form. 
fO'li a'tion, the act of leafing. 
fOl'li ele, 164. 

fo ra'men, same as micropyle, 140. 
fO've o late, having shallow pits. 
free, not adherent nor adnate, 81, 94. 
fringed. (See fimbriate.) 
frOnd, an organ which is both stem and leaf 

as in ducJcmeat, fern. 
fron descent, bursting into leaf. 
frfi-e'ti fi -eS/tion, flower and fruit as a whole. 
fruit, 38, 143. 

fru teVcent, shrubby, becoming shrubby. 
fu ga'ceous, soon falling off. 
f ul'era (roots), accessary, ^06. 
fu Hg'i nous, smoky brown, blackish. 
fulvous, dull yellowish brown. 
fu nl-e'u lus (a little rope), 140. 
fun'nel-fOrm. (See infundibuliform), 192. 
f tiY'e&te, forked, fork-veined, 284. 
fur'fu ra'ceous, scurfy. 
f iir-rOwed', marked with channels lengthwise. 
f iis'eous, grayish or blackish brown. 
f u'si f6rm, spindle-shaped, 203. 

gil'le a, galeate, 103. 

gam'o pet'a lee, 477. 

gam'o pet'al ous, with the petals united, 99. 

ga mOph'yl lous, of united perianth leaves, 

gam'o sepal loiis, with the sepals united, 

ggm'i nate, twin, two together. 

gem ma'tion, state of budding (Latin, gemma, 

bud), 382. 
ge ni-e'u late, bent as the knee (genu), 
ge'nus, 29, 457. 
gen'e ra, plural of genus, 457. 
germ, the ovary. ( The term is obsolete.) 
ger mi na'tion, 188, 438. 
gib'boas, more tumid in a certain place, 
glabrous, smooth, not hairy, 312. 
glad'i ate, sword-shaped, ensiform. 
gland, glandular, 80, 393. 
glans, 155. 
glau'eoiis, with a bloom, or whitish, waxy 

powder, seen on the under side of cabbage 

leaves, and on fresh plums, etc. 
glo bose', inform nearly spherical. 
glOm'er ate, collected into close heads. 
glOm'er ule, 363. 

gloss 51'6 gy, the explaining of technical terms. 
glumes, 108, 349. 
glum if'e rae, 484. 
grafting. (Fig. 250, e.) 
grand divisions, 65. 
gran'u lar, composed of grains. 
gym'n5s(a Greek prefix), naked; as. 
gym'nO sper'mae, gymnosperms, 479. 
gym'no sperm' ous, with naked seeds. 
gy nan'drous, 119. 
gyn'O base, a process of the torus on and 

around which the carpels are suspended 

(sc. Geranium, Fig. 172). 
gy nce'ci iim, 123. 
gyn'o phore, a produced torus, bearing the 

ovary on its summit. (Fig. 112.) 



gf rate', same as circinate, 255. 
gy rose', strongly bent to and fro. 

hab'it, the general aspect of a plant. 
hab'it&t, the natural locality or place of 

growth of a vAld plant. 
hairs, 392. Hairy, hirsute, 
halberd- shaped, hastate. (Fig. 318.) 
halved, one-half apparently deficient. 
has'tate, with the base-lobes abruptly spread- 

ing, as in a halbert, 291. 
heart-shaped, 291. 
heart-wood, 419. 
herb, herbaceous, 40, 41. 
her ba'ceotis, green and cellular in texture. 
her bari um, 3. 
hes'per id'i um, 160. 
her maph'ro dite (flower), with both stamens 

and pistils. 
het'er ceph'a lous, heads af tivo sorts in the 

same plant, some 6 and some q . 
het er Og'a mous, two sorts of flowers in the 

same head, some 6 and some ? . 
hex' a ( Greek numeral), six ; as in, 
hex ag'o nal, 6-sided or 6-angled. 
hex am'er ous, 6-parted. 
hex an'drous, having 6 stamens. 
hl'lum, the eye or scar of the seed, 177. 
hir sute', hairy, with rather long hairs, 313. 
his'pid, bristly with stiff hairs, 313. 
his tbl'o gy, description of cells and tissues, 

368. 
hoar'y, frost-colored, grayish-white. 
ho mog'a mous, head with all the flowers 

alike, as to the stamens and pistils, 
ho'mo ge'ne ous, of the same kind, 
hon'ey, honey-bee, 458. 
hood. (See calyptra, 518.) 
hooded. (See cucullate.) 
hOrn'y, of the texture of horn. 
hOr'tus siccus, the herbarium, dry garden, 3. 
hu'nii fuse, spreading on the ground. 
hy'a line, transparent, or nearly so. 
hy'brid, a cross-breed between tivo species. 
hy'per bO'rean, inhabiting northern regions. 
hy'po (in Greek compounds), under ; as, 
hyp'o-era ter'i f6rm, salver-form, 102. 
hyp'o ge'an, growing under ground. 
hy P$g'y nous, 95, 119. 

im'bri -eate, imbricated, 257, 339. 

im mar'gin ate, having no rim or border. 

im mersed'. (See submersed.) 

in ax'i al root, 201. 

in clsed, divided deeply as if cut, 310. 

in -elud'ed, enclosed within, or shorter than, 

as the stamens in the corolla. 
in -eras 'sate, thickened. 
in-eum'bent (sc. embryo), 183. 
in'de his' cent', not opening, 148. 
in def 1 nite, 118. 
in dig'e nous, native of a country. 
in du'pli -eate, 337. 
in du'§i um, the shield of the fruit-dot (sorus) 



in fe'ri or, lower in position. 
in fleet'ed, bent inward, inflexed. 
in'flo res'cence. 341, etc. 
In'fun dib'u li f6rm, funnel-shaped, 102. 
in'nate (sc. anther), 114. 
in sert'ed, insertion, refer to the point of junc- 
tion or apparent origin. 
in teg' u ment, a coal or covering. 
In'ter node, 220. 
In'ter pet'i o lar, between the petioles. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



203 



In'ter rupt/ed ly pinnate, 302. (Fig. 358.) 
in trOrse' {anthers), turned inward, 114. 
In'vo lu'-eie, involucel. c4T 
In'vo lute, rolled inward, 251 (Fig. 287.) 
ir reg'u lar flowers, 83, 101. 

joint'ed, having joints, separable pieces. 
ju'gum, a pair ; as. bijugous, with two pairs 
of leaflets; trijugous, three pairs. 

keel, keeled- (See carinate.1 
kidney-shaped. (See reniform, 295.) 
kingdoms of Nature, 12-14. 

la bel'lum, the odd petal of an orchid, 101. 

1 Vbi ate, lip-shaped, 103. 

lac'er ate, torn irregularly by deep incisions. 

la cin'i ate, slashed, ivith deep incisions. 

la-e tes'cent, containing lac, or milk. 

lac u n5se', having lacuna or holes. 

la cus trine, growing in lakes. 

lam'i na, the blade of a leaf, a thin plate, 271. 

lan'ce o late, lance-shaped. (Fig. 317.) 

la nu'gi nose, woolly, 312. 

la'tex, (1) the turbid or milky juice of plants ; 

(2) vessels. 
lac tif ' er ons tissue, 408. 
latin names of plants, 25, 26. 
layer. (See stolon, 217.) 
leaf, 271, etc.; structure of, 431, etc. 
leaf -bud, 244, etc. 

leaflet, the piece of a compound leaf, 301. 
leaf-stems, 222. 
leg'ume, 165. 
lens, 7. 

len tic'S lar, shaped like a convex lens. 
ll'ber, the inner bark, 412. 
II 'chens, II kens', 519. 
Hg'ne oils system, 399. 
lig'u late, strap-shaped, 103. 
lig ules, the stipules of grasses, 279. 
Hl'i a'ceoiis flower, 100. 
limb, the border, 91. 
lin'e ar, long and narrow, 297. 
lin nce'iis, 468. 

livid, clouded with bluish, brown, omd gray. 
15 'bate, lobed, 294. 

15c 'u li ci'dal, opening into the cell, 148. 
lo ctis'ta, a spikelet of the grasses. 
l5'ment, a jointed legume, 165. 
15 rate' ', thong -shaped. 
lunate, crescent-shaped. 
ly'-eo p5'di a'ce se, 487. 
ly'rate, pinnatifld. with the upper lobes much 

larger than the lower, 293. 

mac ros (in Greek compounds), long. 

mac'u late, spotted or blotched. 

male (flowers), same as staminate. 

mar ces'cent, withering, but persistent, 109. 

mar gin al, belonging to the border. 

mar gin ate, having the border different. 

me dtil'la, pith. 

mgd'ul la ry rays, 414. 

mgd'ul la ry sheath, 414. 

mSm'bra na'ceous, membranous, thin and 

pellucid, 315. 
mer'i carp, one of the carpels of a cremocarp 

of an umbellifer. (Fig. 177.) 
mer oiis. consisting of parts. 
me tab'Slism, 429. 
ml'cro pyle, 177 ; same as foramen, 
ml'^ro sc5pe, 8. 

mid'rib, the central vein of a leaf, 282. 
piid'vein (used in this work), 28*3, 



min'er al, 13. 

mit'ri f§vm, formed like a conical cap. 
monos {in Grek compounds), one only ; as, 
mon a delphotis, 120. 
mo nan drous, 1-stamened, 118. 
mo nil'i f5rm (roots), 204. 
m5n'o car'pic herbs, 42. 
m5n'o chla myd'e ous (flowers), 66. 
m5no c5t'y le dons, 180, 284. 
mo noe clous, 67. 

mo nQg'y no iis, with one style, 124. 
mon'o pgt'a lse. (See gamopetala?, 513.) 
mon'o pet'a loiis, GO. 91. 
mo noph'yl loiis, 1-leaved. 
mQn o sep'al loiis. GO, 91. 
m5n'strous flowers, 334. 
mor phSl'o gy, 19 : of the leaf, 271. 
movements of fluids, 431. 
mu'-ero, a sharp, small, abrupt point. 
mu'ero ii ate. 307. 
mul'ti (in composition), many. 
mul'ti fid, cut half-way into many segments. 
mu'ri cate, bearing short, hard points. 
mu'ri f6rm, like a wall of mason-work. 
mus -eol'o gy, a treatise on mosses. 
mu'ti cose, pointless, not pointed. 
my ce'li tim, the thallus of the fungi, usually 
concealed, 519. 

na'ked seeds, 147. (Fig. 166.) 

na'pi fCrm (root). 203. 

na'tant, sivimming ; under ivater. 

nat'u ral Ized, growing spontaneously, but not 
native. 

nat'u ral orders, 458, 463, 465, 497. 

natural system, 504, 506, etc. 

nSc'tar, honey. 

nectarv, 77. 

ne pen'thes, 322. (Fig. 391.) 

nerves, the veins (282) are sometimes so called. 

net'ted or net-veined. (See reticulate, 284.) 

nea tral flower, 68. 

n5d'ding, nutant, the summit bent over, as in 
snowdrop. 

node, a joint of the stem, 220. 

do d5se\ knotted, large-jointed. 

nod'u lose (root), 204. 

n5'men clat'ure, 25, 498, etc. 

nOr'mal, according to rule, regular. 

nu'ci form, nut-like. 

nil cel'his, kernel (sc. of ovule), 140, 172, cen- 
tral body in cell. 

nu-cle'o liis, dense body within a nucleus. 

nu'-ele iis, dense spherical mass of protoplasm 
in a cell. 

nut. (See glans, 155.) 

ob (in composition) denotes inversion ; as, 

5b com pressed 7 , flattened back and front. 

ob c Or 'date. 307. 

ob lan'ce o late, 290. 

ob lique , unequal-sided, as the leaves of elm. 

5b long, 289. 

ob 5'vate, 290. 

ob tuse', 307. 

5b vo lute (in aestivation), 258. 

och'rea, sheathing stipules, 279. 

5th'ro leu'eose, cream color, pale yellow. 

octo (in Greek composition), eight. 

oc tan'drose, having 8 stamens. 

o-e tog'y nOse, having 8 styles. 

off set, a short lateral shoot, 218. 

oligos (in Greek composition), few ; as, 

61 1 g2n dria, with few stamens. 

51 i vil'ceous, olive-green, brownish-green. 



204 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



o paque', dull, not shining. 

o per'-eu lar, with a lid, 114. 

Op'po site, two at a node, 215, 262. 

or bre'tl ]ar, orbiculate, circular, 289. 

Or'ehi da'ceoiis, 101. 

or gan'ic world, 12. 

Organ Og'ra phy, 19. See structural botany. 

or thOt'ro pous (ovule), erect, 141. 

Os'se ous, bony, as the peach-stone, 

O'val, 289. 

ovate, 288. 

Ova ry, 125. 

O'void, egg-shaped, as in fruits. 

O'vule, the young seed, 138. 

pa'le ae or pales, 108, 349. 

pa'le Sceous, chaffy, having pales, 

palm, 422. 

paTmi-veined, 285. 

pal'mate, 295. 

pan du'ri f6rm, fiddle-shaped. 

pan'i «le, 360. 

pa nie'ii late, panicled. 

pa pil'io na'ceous, 101. 

pap 'pus, the calyx of composites, 104. 

par'al lel-veined, 2d4. 

par 'a sites, 209. 

pa ren'-ehy ma, 396. 

pa rre tal, on the wall {paries), 133. 

p : 4rt'ed, deeply divided into parts. 

pat'ent, wide open. 

pat'u loiis, half open. 

pear-shaped, obovoid, larger above. 

pec'ti nate, combed, finely pinnatifid. 

pgd'ate, shaped like a bird^sfoot, 296. 

ped'i eel, peduncle, 343, 

peTtate, shield-form, 295. 

pend'ent, pendulous, hanging, drooping. 

pen'i cil'late, with a tuft of hairs, as if a 

cameVs-hair pencil. 
pen tam'er ous, h-parted. 
pen tan'droiis, with 5 stamens, 118. 
pen'te {in Greek composition), five, 
pe'po, a fruit like a melon, 161. 
per en'm al, living several years, 43. 
perfect flower, (s) with both stamen and 



per fo'li ate, through the leaf, 311. 

peri (in Greek composition), around ; as, 

per'i anth, 53, 87 ; forms of, 99. 

perl carp, 146 ; forms of, 150. 

perl gyn i iim, 107. 

pe rig'y nous, 96, 119. 

peri sperm, same as albumen, 179. 

per sist'ent, remaining long in place, 109. 

person ate, 103 

petal or pe'tal,//ww ireraXov, one of thefoli- 

aceous expansions of the corolla, 52 ; forms 

of, 89. 
pgt'al oid, resembling petals, 
pet'al oi'de ge, 483. 
pet'i Ole, 274. 
pgt'i o late, 271. 
pet'i o lule, 276. 
phan'e ro ga'rnia, 467, 471, 472. 
phyl lo'di um (plural phyllodia), 321. 
phyl lo tax'y, leaf-arrangement, 261. 
phys'iss, 16. 
phy§ i 51o gy, 21, 368. 
phy tbl'o gy (Greek, phytos, a plant), 23. 
pi lose', with erect, thin hairs, 313. 
pin 'nate, 302. 
pin nat'i fid, 293. 
pin nat'i sect. See pinnatifid. 
pis'til, 56, 123. 



pitch'ers (leaves). (See ascidia, 322.) 

pith, 414. 

pitted cells, 387. 

pit 'ted, with depressions or excavations. 

pla cen'ta, 127 ; free axile, 135. 

plan of the flower, 58. 

plant defined, 14. 

plant growth, 409. 

pli'sate, plaited lengthwise as a fan, 254, 340. 

plu mose' , feathery. 

plu'mule, a little plume, 31, 180. 

pOl'len, 111, 121. 

pollen-tube, 450. 

p51 li na'tion, 443. 

p51 lm'i a, masses of pollen, 434. 

pOl'i (in Greek compounds), many : as, 

poTy a del'phous, 120. 

poTy an'droiis, having many stamens. 

po lyg'a moiis, with some imperfect flowers. 

pol'y pet'al ae, 476. 

poTy pet'al ous, pOl y sep'al ous, 90. 

pome, a fruit like an apple, 162. 

pOs te'ri or, next the axis. 

potted plants, 428. 

po ta'tOj manner of its growth, 238. 

pre co'cioiis, flowering before the leaves, 

pre'fo li a'tion, vernatwn, 252. 

pre mOrse', ending abruptly, 235. 

press for drying plants, 6. 

prick'les, 392. 

pri'mine, same as testa, 173. 

prig mafic, prism-shaped, having several par- 
allel, longitudinal angles. 

pro cum'bent (stem), 212. (Fig. 248.) 

pro duced', extended more than usual. 

pro lifer ous, reproducing ; as cymes from 
the midst of a cyme, fiowers from the midst 
of a flower. 

pros'gn'elrjf ma, 398. 

pro tOph'y ta, 494. 

pro 'to plasm, 368, 369. 

pru'i nose, powdered, as if frosted, 314. 

pru'ri ens, causing an itching sensation, 

pseu'do (in Greek composition), spurious, 
false. 

pu bes'cent, downy, with short, soft hairs. 

pu ber'u lent, minutely downy. 

pu'mi lose (pumilus), dwarfed in size. 

pune'tate, seeming as if perforate, or marked 
with minute dots. 

pun'gent, piercing, sharp-pointed. 

pu ta men, the bony nucleus of a drupe. 

py ram'i dal, form of a cone or pyramid. 

pyr'i fOrm, of the form of a pear. 

pyx'is, a pericarp with a lid, 163. 

quad'ri (in composition), four ; as, 

quad ran'gu lar, four-angled. 

quad'ri fO'li ate, four-leaved. 

quad'ri ju'gate, with four pairs of leaflets. 

quad'ri lat'er al, four-sided. 

quin'que (in composition), five, 

qui'nate^ growing in fives, 306. 

quin -eun'cial, 339. (Fig. 300.) 

quin'tu pie, five-fold. 

race (Latin, stirps), a permanent variety, as 

red-cabbage, 456. 
ra ceme', 358. 

ra'shis, axis of the inflorescence, 301, 343. 
ra'di ate, diverging from a common center. 
radiate (in the composites), the outer row of 

florets ligulate. (Fig. 388.) 
ra'di ant, outer flowers enlarged (and often 
neutral, Fig. 271). 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



205 



rad'i £a\,from the root, 262. 

radical (of the flower), 65. 

rad'i -ele, rootlet (of the embryo), 31, 180. 

ra'mal (of a branch), 262. 

ra'phe (of the ovule or seed), 141. 

raph'i des, 375. 

rays, 359, 362. 

re cep'ta -ele, 57. (See torus.) 

re curved', bent (not rolUd) backward. 

re flexed', curved backward excessively, 

re fraet'ed, bent back suddenly, as if broken. 

reg'ma, fruit as of geranium, 168. 

reg'u lar, like parts similar, corresponding. 

ren'i f6rm. kidney shaped, 295. 

re pand' (margin), 310. 

rS'pent, creeping (sc. stems, 232). 

res pi ration, 427. 

re su'pi nate, reversed, upside down. 

re tic' u late, netted, 388. 

re trOrse, backward, downward. 

re tuse' (apex), 307. (Fig. 367, c.) 

rev o lute, rolled backward, 256. 

rha'chis, same as rachis. 

rhi zO'ma, rhizome, 230, 233. 

rhSm'bic, rhomb oidal, in the figure of a 

rhomb, or approaching it. 
ribs, the chief veins of a leaf, ridges. 
rin'gent (corolla), 103. 
rings of wood, 414. 
root, 197. 
root-cap, 419. 
root-stock, 233. 
ro sa'ceous (corolla). 100. 
rOs'trate, beaked, with a beak. 
ro su late (leaves), arranged around the base 

of the stein, as the petals of a rose, 262. 
rotate, wheel-shaped, 102. 
ro ta'tion, circulation of fluids in the cell. 
ru'bi -eund, blushing, rosy red. 
rii'di ment, a minute part. 
rii gOse, wrinkled, 315. 

rii'nii na'ted (albumen),/*^ of chinks, as if 
"composed of numerous folds. 
run ci'nate, hooked backward, 293. 
run'ner, 219. 

sa-e -eha rOm'y ces, 410. 
sag It tate, arrow-shaped, 291. 
sal'ver-shaped. (See hvpocrateriform, 102.) 
sa ma'ra, 154. 

sap, the watery fluid taken up by the root and 
moved through the vessels up to the leaves, 431. 
sap-wood. 

sar'-eo c'irp (of the drupe), 156. 
sca'brous. rough, 312. 
8«a lar i f6rm (cells), ladder-shaped, 378. 
scales, 319. 
scale-stems, 79, 230. 
se an dent, climbing. 
scape, 344. 
scarious, 315. 

s-eat'tered, sometimes used for alternate, 
scl'on or ci'on, 218. 
seler en' ^hy'ma, 390. 
eele'rose, hard, bony. 
freor'pi oid (inflorescence), 365. 
s^ro bie'u. late, pitted, with little depressions. 
sea-green, light-bluish green, glaucescent. 
se -eund. all on one side, or turned one way. 
seVun dine, same as tegmen, 172. 
seed, 172 ; vitality of, 185 ; dispersion of, 186. 
seed-coverings, 173. 
sem'i (in composition), half; as, 
semi cOr'date, half of cordate. 
semi lunar, half moon shaped. 



sem'i sag 'it tate, partly sagittate. 

se'pal or sep al, one of the foliaceous parts of 

the calyx. 51. 
sep'a loid, sepal-like. 
sep ti cid'al (dehiscence), 148. 
sep tif ra gal (dehiscence), 148. 
sep turn, a partition between two spaces. 
se ri'ceous, silky, 312. 
se r5t i nous, occurring late in the season. 
ser'rate, serrulate, 309. 
ses'sile, sitting, not stalked, 125, 271. 
setae, 106. 

se ta'ceous, bristle-form. 
se'tous, setigirous, bearing bristles, 313. 
sheath, sheathing, as the leaves of the grasses, 

275. 
shrub, 45. 

sil'ique, silicle, 166. 

sll'i quos. bearing siliques (as the crucifers). 
silver-grain (of wood). 414. 
simple, of one piece, not compound. 
sin is Irorse', twining from right to left. 
sin'u ate, 294. 
slips, 218. 

sOl'i ta ry, growing alone, or singly. 
solvent axis, 47. 
so 'n, patches of fruit in ferns. 
so ro sis, 171. 
spa'dix, 356. 

spathe, spathaceous, 346. 
spat'u late (leaf), 290. 
spe'cie§, 27, 455. 
spe cif ic name, 26. 
epep'i mens (of plants), 2, 5. 
spike, spicate, 355. 

spike let, a little spike, as in a grass. 
spine, a woody thorn, 327. 
spindle-shaped (root), 203. (Fig. 238.) 
spiral arrangement (of leaves), 263. 
spiral cells or vessels, 386. 
sponge let, spongiole, 199. 
spores, 184. 

spur, a projecting, slender appendage, 78. 
squar rose', spreading icidely, as the involu- 

cral scales of some composites. 
stages of plant life, 31. 
sta'mens, 55, 110. 
stam'i nate flower, 67. 
stam'i no di a, 117. 
starch, 374. 

stem, or ascending axis, 211. 
ster'ile, not bearing seeds, 67. 
stig'ma, stigmatic, 125, 129. 
stings, 393. 
stipe, the stalk of the ovary or ovaries ; also, 

the stem of a mushroom. 
stT'pels, stipellate, 279. 
stip'i tate, on a stipe. 
stipules, stipulate. 272, 277. 
sto Ion, 217. 

stoTo nif 'er ous, producing stolons. 
stO 'ma, 394, etc. 

strap-shaped, flat, narrow, and straight. 
strict, erect and very straight. 
stri gOse', with shaip, close, rigid hairs. 
strOb ile (fruit), 1G9. 
stro phi o late, having an appendage (stro- 

phiole or caruncle) about the hilum. 
struc'tur al botany or organography, treats of 

the organs or parts of plants, of their fomis 

and uses. 
style, 125. 
styloid, style-like. 
sub (in composition), slightly, 317. 
sub'e rose, corky in texture. 



206 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



sub-kingdoms, 473. 

su'bu late, awl-shaped, 299. 

sue'-eu lent, very juicy and cellular, 315. 

suck'er, 216. 

suf fru tes'cent, woody at the base only. 

sul'-eate, furrowed. 

su peri or, 97, 98. 

superior calyx, calyx adherent to ovary. 

superior ovary, ovary free from calyx. 

su per vo lute', 340. 

su pra, above. 

su pra-ax il la ry, situated above the axil. 

su pra de -eSm pound, very much divided. 

sus pend ed (ovule), 139. (Fig. 158.) 

sut'tir al (dehiscence), 148. 

sword-shaped, as the vertical leaves of iris. 

sy -eo'nus,/nz££, such as the Fig., 170. 

symmetry (of the flower), 60, c, 69. 

sym pet'al ous, with petals united. 

sym phyl'lous, with perianth leaves united. 

syn {in Greek compounds), together, union. 

syn an'ther ous, with anthers united. 

syn -ear'pi urn, 169. 

syn-ear poiis, with carpels united. 

syn'ge ne'gi otis, 120. 

sys'tem at'ic botany, 451, etc. 

taper-pointed. {See acuminate, 307.) 

tap-root, 203. 

taw ny, fulvous, dull yellowish-brown. 

tax On'o my, the science of classification. 

teg'men, the inner seed-coat, 140, 172. 

tendril, 228, 324. 

ter'a tSl o gy, 334. 

te rete', cylindrical, or nearly so. 

term of plant life, 39, etc. 

ter'mi nal, situated at the end or apex. 

ter'mi nOl'o gy. See nomenclature, 498. 

ter'nate (leaves), in threes, 303. 

tes'sel la'ted, checkered, as a pavement. 

testa, the outer seed-coaU 140, 172, 173. 

tet'ra {in Greek composition), four. 

tet'ra dyn'a mous, 119. 

te trag'o nal, with four corners. 

te trag'y nous, with four pistils. 

the'ca, thecae, sporangia or spore-cases. 

thorn, 327. 

throat, orifice of a monopetalous corolla. 

thyrse (thlrs), 360. 

tis sues, 409. 

to men tOse', with short, dense, woolly hairs, 
312. 

top-shaped, inversely conical. 

tO'rus, same as receptacle, 57, 84. 

tOr'u lose, swollen at intervals. 

tree, 46. 

tri {in Greek compounds), three ; as, 

trl a delph ous, the stamens in three sets. 

tri an'drous, having three stamens. 

tri €5e'-eous (fruit), with three 1-seeded car- 
pels. 

tri'-eol ored {tricolor), with three colors. 

tri en'ni al, lasting three years. 

tri fid, split half-way into three parts. 

tri fo li ate, with three leaflets, 303. 

trig y nous, having three styles, 124. 

tri 10 bate, having three lobes, 296. 

tri me'rotis, ^-parted, 65. 

tri part a ble, sepa able into three parts. 

tri part Ite, more deeply split than trifid. 

triple-veined, 285. (Fig. 319.) 

tri pin 'nate, thrice pinnate, 304. 

tri que'trous, three angled, 258, 339. 

tri ter'nate, thrice iernate, 305. 

truncate, 307. (Fig. 367, d.) 



I trunk (of a tree), 225. 

I try ma,, fruit, as the hickory-nut, 157. 

I tube, 91. 

tuber, 237. 

tu ber'-eu lar, £04. 

tu ber'-eu late, covered with warts {tubercles). 

tu'bu lar corolla, 102. 

tu'mid, swollen or inflated. 

tu'ni -eate, coated, as the bulb, 242. 

tur'bi nate, shaped like a top. 

tu'ri on, young shoot, as of asparagus. 

typie al flower, 60. (Figs. 8-11.) 

iim'bel, 359. 

iim'bel late, bearing umbels. 

um'bel let, a partial umbel. 

urn biri -eate, with a sharp depression at end. 

un armed', with no stings, tho?*ns, etc. 

iin'ci nate, hooked. 

iin'der shrub, a low shrub, 45. 

un'dii late, wavy, 310. 

un equal ly pinnate, 302. 

un gui-e'u late (petal), having a claw, 88. 

uni {in compounds), one ; as, 

u'ni cel'lu lar plants. 

u ni fo'li ate, with one leaf or leaflet. 

u'ni f Orm, of one form. 

u ni later al, 1-sided. 

u ni lOe'u lar, 1-celled. 

u'ni valved, with but one valve. 

ur'ce o late, urn-shaped, 102. 

u'tri <?le (fruit), 152. 

vag'i nate, sheathing ; the flattened petiole 
involving the stem. 

valv'ate, 257, 337. 

valves, valvular, 114, 148. 

va rl e ties, 28. 

vas'-eu lar tissue, 396. 

vault'ed, arched. 

veg'e ta tion, or physiology of plant life, 368. 

veins, 282. 

vein lets, vein'u lets, 283. 

ve nation (of the leaf), 282. 

veVtri cose, swelling out on one side. 

ven'tral, belonging to the front side. 

vernal, appearing in the Spring-time. 

ver na'tion (of the leaf bud), 252. 

ver'ru cose, covered with warts {verruca). 

ver'sa tile (anther), 114. 

ver'tex, the summit, same as apex. 

ver'ti-e al, in the direction up and down, or 
parallel with the axis. 

ver tic'il late, whorled, 215, 262. 

ver ti cil las'ter, 366. 

vesper tine, appearing in the evening. 

ves'sels, 402. 

vex'il la ry (aestivation). (Fig. 425.) 

vex ilium, banner, 101- (Figs. 59, 60.) 

vil lose', with long, weak hairs, 312. 

vi min'e ous, with long, flexible shoots, osier- 
like. 

virgate, twiggy, long, slender. 

vine, 228. 

viscid, viscous, sticky or glutinous. 

vi tal'ity of seeds, 185. 

vit'ta, vittoe, the minute oil-tubes in the fruit- 
coat of the umbelliferce. 

vOlva, membrane inclosing the young fungus. 

wedge-shaped, tapering to the base. 

whorl, a cii cle of similar organs. 

witch-grass, 231. 

wood, 372, 415. 
wood-cells, 399. 
woody plants, 44. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 



207 



xan thie. yellowish. 

xen og a my, the fertilization of a flower, by 
pollen from a flower of another plant, of the 
same species ; cross-fertilization. 

xer o philes, plants that require great heat 
and little moisture, or plants especially 
adapted to arid regions. £epo?, dry, (/>iAew, 
/ love ; hence, plants that delight in dry 



xy'lem, ivood. From %vkov. 
xy lo «arp, fvAor, wood, kolqttos, fruit,' hence, 
hard and woody fruit. 



yeast plant, 411. (Fig. 513.) 

zo 61 o gy, 17. 

zo Of II us, from the Greek iioov, animal, and 

(j>vToi, plant; pertaining to plants whose 

poUinaUon is accomplished by the agency of 

insects or other animals. 
zO'O phyte, 493. 
zo spOre, 493. 
zyg'O spore, spore formed by the union of two 

cells. £i>ixov, a yoke, awopa, a seed ; hence, a 

yoked or united seed. 






ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS 



§ BOTANICAL TERMS OFTEN RECURRING IN DESCRIPTIONS 



(ic/i. achenia. 
ast. aestivation. 
alter, alternate. 
a?nplex. amplexicaul. 
with, anther. 
axill. axttlary. 
cal. calyx. 
caps, capsule. 
cor. corolla. 
typ. cypsela. 
decid. deciduoas. 
diam. diameter. 
ellip. elliptical. 
emarg. emarginate. 
eydg. epigynous. 
/. ovft. feet. 
fil. filaments. 
d. flower ; Jls. flowers. 



fr. fruit. 

gl. glume ; gls. glumes. 
hd. head ; hds. heads. 
hyp. hypogynous. 
imbr. imbricate. 
inf. inferior. 
invol. involucre. 
irreg. irregular. 
leg. legume. 
If. leaf; Ivs. leaves. 
Ifts. leaflets. 
lorn, loment. 
opp. opposite. 
ova. ovary. 
pap. pappus. 
ped. peduncle. 
pet. petals. 
perig. perigynous. 



perig. perigynium. 
pis. pales. 
pn. pinnae. 
pnl. pinnnlae. 
recep. receptacle 
reg. regular. 
rhiz. rhizoma. 
rt. root. 
sc. scale, scales. 



seg. segment. 
sep. sepals. 
st. stem. 

sta. or stam. stamenp 
stig. stigmas. 
stip. stipules. 
sty. styles. 
var. variety. 



§ TIMES OP FLOWEiiING, AND LOCALITIES. 



1. Names of the Months and Seasons are abbreviated in the usual manner, as, jan 
January ; Apr. April ; Spr. Spring ; Aut. Autumn ; Sum. Summer ; <fcc. 

2. The names of States and Territories of the U. S. are abbreviated precisely as ir. 
other works, thus : — Ala. Alabama ; Ark. Arkansas ; Conn. Connecticut, &c. 

3. Sections of States are thus designated : —N. N. Y. Northern New York; W. Pa. 
Western Pennsylvania ; E. Fla. East Florida ; S. 111. Southern Illinois, &c. 

4. Names of foreign Countries :—Eur. Europe ; Afr. Africa ; S. Afr. South Afr.ca , 
Au$t. Australia ; Can. Canada ; Mex. Mexico ; S. Am. South America &c. 

5. E. East, Eastward, indicates the States of the Atlantic seaboard from Maine to V> 
£inia inclusive ; N-E. or N. Eng. denotes the New England States. 

6. M. is used to denote the Middle States ; viz., N. Y., Penn., N. J., and Del. 

L iV". North, Northward, indicates generally the territory north of 42° N. latitude. 

8. N-W. Northwest, indicates Wis., Minn., and parts of 111. and Mich. 

9. 8. South, Southward, is used to indicate the Southern States in general,— all lying 
south of Virginia and Kentucky 

10. S-W. Southwest, viz., Miss., La., Ark., and perhaps Tennessee and Texas 
XI. W. West, denotes the States lyiup due north of Tennessee and Arkansas. 



ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. 



200 



§ SIGNS. 



i 



I 

b 



An animal Herb. 

A biennial Herb. 

A perennial Herb. 

An undershrub, deciduous. 

An undershrub, evergreen. 

A Shrub, deciduous. 

A Shrub, evergreen. 

A Tree, deciduous. 

A Tree, evergreen. 

An herbaceous Vine, (g or (2). 

A perennial Vine, u . 

Woody Vine, deciduous. 



*> Woody Vine, evergreen. 
L^, Trailing Herb, (I) or (s£. 
L^ Trailing Herb, U . 
£Z An aquatic Plant. 

¥ Flowers perfect. 

$ Flowers staminate. 

$ Flowers pistillate. 

8 Monoecious. 

$ ? Dioecious. 

$ $ ? Polygamous. 

Wanting, or none. 
. qo Numerous, or indefinite. 



'tat 



the end of the description. 



§ A Plant introduced and naturalized ; 

t Plant cultivated for ornament ; 

X Plant cultivated for use ; 

o=- Cotyledons accumbent ; 1 

c[ Cotyledons incumbent ; vused only in the Cruciferae. (Page 34.) 

o)) Cotyledons condaplicate ; J 

! (Note of exclamation), used technically, denotes certainty. 

! (Note of interrogation), implies doubt or uncertainty. 

f (with or without a period), a foot 1 

' (a single acute accent), an inch >■ after a number. 

" (a double accent), a line =1-12 of an inch. . J 





% AUTHORS' NAMES CITED IN THIS 


Adans. 


Adanson. 


Dill. 


A. DC. 


Alphonac De Candolle. 


Desv. 


Alt. 


Aiton. 


Dougl. 


AU. 


Allione. 


Ehrh. 


Anders. 


Andersson. 


Ell. 


Am. 


Arnott. 


Endl. 


Asb. 


Aublet. 


Engel. 


Bart. 


Barton. 


Fisch. 


Bartl. 


Bartling. 


F. &M. 


Beauv. 


Beauvois. 


Frcel. 


Benth. 


Bentham. 


Gcert. 


Bernh. 


Bernhardt. 


Gmel. 


Bert. 


Berlandier. 


Good. 


Bois. 


Boissier. 


Gr. 


Bong. 


Bongard. 


Grr\ 


Bork. 


Borkhausen. 


Griseb. 


Br. 


Brown. 


Gron. 


Bw. 


Bigelow. 


Hedw. 


Cass. 


Cassini. 


Hoffm. 


Cav. 


Cavanilles. 


Rook. 


Cham 


Chamissc 


Hook.f. (JUius) 


Darl. 


Darlington. 


ffornem. 


DC 


De Candolle. 


ffuds. 


Desf. 


Desfontaines. 


H. B. K. 


Dew. 


Dewey. 


Jacq. 



Dillenius 

Desvacu. 

Douglas. 

Ehrhart. 

Elliott. 

Endlicher. 

Engelmann. 

Fischer. 

Fischer & Meyer 

Froelich. 

Gaertner. 

Gmelin. 

Goodenough. 

A. Gray. 

Greville. 

Grisebach. 

Gronovius. 

Hedwig. 

Hoffman. 

Hooker (W. J.) 

Hooker (J. D.) 

Hornemann. 

Hudson. [Kiuuii 

Humboldt, Bonpiand d 

Jacanin 



210 



ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. 



AUTHORS 1 NAMES— (Continued). 



Ju$$. 


JUSSIEU. 


Richn. 


Richardson. 


A. Just. 


Adrien Jussieu. 


Ram. 


Rcemer. 


L. or Lint i. 


LlNNEUS. 


Salisb. 


Salisbury. 


Lag. 


Lagasca. 


Schk. 


Schkuhr. 


Lam. 


Lamarck. 


Schrad. 


Schrader. 


Lamb. 


Lambert. 


Schreb. 


Schreber. 


Ledeb. 


Ledebour. 


Schult. 


Schultes. 


Lehm. 


Lehmann. 


Schw. 


3chweinitz. 


Lesq. 


Lesquereux. 


Scop. 


Scopoli. 


Lestib. 


Lestibudois. 


Ser. 


Seringe. 


VEer. 


L'Heritier. 


Soland. 


Solander. 


Lindl. 


Lindley. 


Spreng. 


Sprengel. 


Mart. 


Martins. 


Steud. 


Steudel. 


Mich. 


Micheli. 


Sulliv. 


Sullivant. 


Michx. or Mx. 


Michaux. 


Thunb. 


Thunberg. 


Mx.f. 


Michaux (the younger). 


Torr. 


Torrey. 


Mill. 


Miller. 


T.& 0. 


Torrey & Gray 


Mitch. 


Mitchell. 


Tourn. 


Tournefort. 


Muhl. 


Muhlenberg. 


Trautv. 


Trautvetter. 


Nees. 


Nees von iSsenbeck. 


Trin. 


Trinius. 


Nutt. or N* 


Nuttall. 


Tuckm. 


Tuckerman. 


Pal. 


Pallas. 


VaiU. 


Vaillant. 


Pav. 


Pavon. 


Vent. 


Ventenat. 


Pers. 


Persoon. 


mi. 


Villars. 


Ph. 


Pursh. 


Wahl. 


Wahlenberg. 


Ptuk. 


Plukenet. 


Walp. 


Walpers. 


Plum. 


Plumier. 


Walt. 


Walter. 


Pair. 


Poiret. 


Wangh. 


Wangenheim 


R.Br. 


Robert Brown 


WiUd. 


Willdenow. 


Raf. 


Raflnesque. 


With. 


Withering. 


Reichml 


Rcichenhach. 


Waif. 


Wulfen. 


mch. 


mctmrd. 







ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 

Founded on the most obvious or artificial characters : designed as a key for 

the determination of the Order of any plant, native, or naturalized, 

or cultivated, growing within the. limits of this Flora. 



KINGDOM. 

Sub-kingdom I. Flowering Plants PHANEROGAMIA* 

Class 1. Leaves net-veined. Flowers never completely 3-parted 
(mostly V and \). Embryo with 2 cotyledons. Wood (if 
any) in annual circles. Seed in a vessel. Stigmas pres- 
ent ANGIOSPERMS, DICOTYLEDONES. 

Cohort 1. (A) Calyx and corolla present, petals separate Polypetalae. 

Cohort 2. (B) Calyx and corolla present, petals more or less united.. Gamopetalae. 

Cohort 3. (C) Calyx present, but no corolla, or both wanting Apetalae. 

Class 2. Stigma wanting. Seed naked. Embryo with two or more 

cotyledons GYMNOSPERMS- 

Cohort 4. (D) Cone-bearing plants (Pines, etc.) Coniferae. 

Class 3. Leaves parallel- veined (rarely netted). Flowers 3-parted. 
Bark, wood, and pith commingled. Embryo with but one 

cotyledon. Root not axial MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

Cohort 5. (E) Flowers on a spadix Spadicifloras. 

Cohort 6. (F) Floral envelope in two 3-parted whorls, outer 

one green (Lillies, etc.) Petaloidae. 

Cohort 7. (G) Floral envelope, chaff-like (Grasses and Grains) Glumiferae. 

Sub-kingdom II. Flowerless Plants CRYPTOGAMIA. 

Class 1. Vascular Cryptogams (Ferns, and their allies) PTERIDOPHYTA. 

Cohort 1. (H) Stem, herbaceous, rooting, or tree-like. Eieopodinae. 

Cohort 2. (I) Stem, stiff, channeled (Rushes) Equisetaceae. 

Cohort 3* (J) Stem a creeping Rhizome or erect leaves pin- 

ni-veined, veins forked (Ferns proper) Eilicinae. 



A. Cohort I. POLYPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES. 

Herbs with the leaves alternate or all radical . . (12) 
Herbs with the leaves opposite on the stem . . (9) 
Shrubs, trees, or undershrubs . . (2) 
2 Flowers regular or nearly so . . (3) 
2 Flowers irregular (or the fruit a legume) (§ 165) . . (r) 

3 Polyandrous,— stamens 3 — 10 times as many as the petals.. (4) 

3 Oligandrous,— stamens 1—2 times as many as the petals or fewer. .(6) 



212 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 

4 Leaves opposite, (s) 
4 Leaves alternate..^) 

5 Stamens on the torus or the hypogynous corolla. .(t) 
5 Stamens and petals on the calyx tube. . (v) 
6 Ovaries simple, distinct, or one only. Vines or erect shrubs, .(w) 
6 Ovary compound, and wholly adherent to the calyx . (x) 
6 Ovary compound and free from the calyx or nearly so. .(7) 

7 Stamens opposite to the petals aud of the same number, .(y) 
7 Stamens alternate with the petals or of a different number. .(8) 
8 Leaves opposite on the stems . . (z) 
8 Leaves alternate, and compound..^) 
8 Leaves alternate and simple, .(zz) 
9 Polyandrous— stamens 3—10 times as many as the petals, .(m) 
9 Oligandrous,— stamens 1—2 times as many as the petals or fewer. . (10) 
10 Pistils separate and distinct, few or solitary, simple.. in) 
10 Pistils united into a compound ovary free from the calyx. . (11) 
10 Pistils united into a compound ovary adherent to the calyx.. (6) 
11 Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number. . {p) 
11 Stamens alternate with the petals or of a greater number. . (q) 
12 Flowers regular or nearly so. Fruit never a legume . . (14) 
12 Flowers irregular (rarely regular and the fruit a legume) .. (13) 
13 Stamens numerous, 3 or more times as many as the petals . . (k) 
13 Stamens few and definite, 4— 12. .(I) 

14 Stamens (or anthers) 3—10 times as many as the petals . . (15) 
14 Stamens few and definite. Ovary free from the calyx. .(17) 
14 Stamens few and definite. Ovary adherent to the calyx. . (J) 
15 Stamens hypogynous— inserted on the torus. .(16) 
15 Stamens perigynous— inserted on the corolla at the base, .(c) 
15 Stamens perigynous— inserted on the calyx at the base . . (d) 
16 Pistils few or many, distinct (at least as to the styles) . . (a) 
16 Pistils (and styles if any) completely united . . (b) 
17 Pistils one, or indefinite aud distinct, simple . . (e) 
17 Pistils definitely—* 2 united, the short styles combined into one..{f) 
— * 2, 3 or 4 united, styles or stigmas, 2, 3, 4 or 6. .(g) 
— * 5, distinct or united, with 5 distinct styles. .(A) 
— * 5, united and the styles also combined into one..(i) 

a Petals 5 or more, deciduous. Leaves never peltate Rantjnculace^e. 

a Petals 3 or numerous. Water plants with peltate leaves i NYMPHiEACE^E. 

b Sepals 4—6, equal. Petals OO, imbricated in the bud.. . . j 

b Sepals 5, equal. Petals 5, imbricate. Leaves tubular Sarraceniace^j. 8 

b Sepals 5, unequal. Petals 5, convolute. Flowers of 2 sorts Cistace^e. 15 

b Sepals 2, with— bb 5 petals imbricated in the bud Portulaccaceje. 20 

— bb 4 or 8 petals usually crumpled in bud Papaverace^e. 9 

c Filaments united into a tube. Anthers 1-celled Malvaceae. 23 

d Sepals 2, persistent, capping the lid of the pyxis Portulaccace^e. 20 

d Sepals 3—5, valvate in the bud. Pod long, 2-carpelled Tiliace2e. 25 

d Sepals 3— 5.— tfd Petals imbricate in bud. Fruits simple Rosacea. 44 

— dd Petals convolute in bud. Fruit compound Loasace^e. 55 

e Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number. Pistil 1 only. .Berberidace^j. 6 

e Stamens alternate with the petals or more numerous Ranunculace^e. 1 

/ Stamens 6, tetradynamous. Pod 2-celled. Flowers cruciform. ...... .Cruciferjs. 11 

/ Stamens 4—32, not tetradynamous. Pod 1-celled C app arid ace je. 12 

g Sepals 5, unequal. Flowers perfect, numerous, minute Cistace^e. 15 

g Sepals 5, equal. Flowers monoecious. Herbs woolly or scurfy .Order 113 



ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 213 

g Sepals 5, or 3, equal, and the stamens twice as many Geraniace^:. 30 

g Sepals 5, and the stamens (anthers) of the same number, .(gg) 

gg Sterile filam. numerous, in several whorls. Climbing. . . Passiflorace^e. 57 

gg Sterile filaments numerous, in 5 clusters. Herb erect Saxifragace^e. 45 

gg Sterile filaments 0. .(*) 

* Flowers white, racemed. Climbing Order 106 

* Flowers yellow. Plants erect Ttjrnerace^e. 56 

* Flowers cyanic. Herbs stemless Droseraceje. 17 

h Stamens 5, alternate with the 5 petals. Styles 5 or 3. Seeds 00 Linacele. 28 

h Stamens 5, opposite to the 5 petals. Styles 5. but the seed 1 Order 83 

h Stamens twice as many as the petals. .(M) 

hh Stamens 6. Leaves peltate Nympeleaceje. 7 

hh Stamens 6 — 24, distinct Crassulace^e. 46 

hh Stamens 10, united at base. Geraxiace^e. 30 

i Ovary 1-celled. Leaves all radical, spinescent, irritable Droserace^e. 17 

t Ovary 3-5 celled. Leaves mostly radical, not dotted Order 73 

i Ovary 3-5 celled. Leaves cauline, pinnate, dotted Rtjtaceje. 31 

j Style 1, but the carpels as many as the petals (2— b) Oxagrace^e. 54 

j Styles 3 — 5, ovary 3-5-celled, 3-5-seeded, wholly adherent Araliace^e. C4 

j Styles 3 — 8, ovary 1-celled, half adherent. Sepals 2 Portulacace^e. 20 

j Styles 2, carpels 2, fewer than the (5) petals. — * Seeds several Saxifragace^e. 45 

— * Seeds 2 Umbellifere. 03 

k Ovaries many, or few, rarely 1, always simple Raxtixculacee. 1 

k Ovary compound, 3-carpelled, open before ripe Resedacejs. 13 

I Sepals (4 or 5) produced into 1 slender spur behind, petals 2 or 5 Geraxiace,e. 30 

I Sepals 2 (or vanished), petals 4 (2 pairs) with 1 or 2 blunt spurs Fumariace^e. 10 

I Sepals 5, very unequal; petals 3. Stamens 6 or 8. No spur Polygalace^e. 42 

I Sepals and petals each of the same number, viz . . (U) 

U 4, the flowers slightly irregular. Stamens 6—32. No spur Capparidace^:. 12 

U 4, the flowers moderately irregular. Stamens 8. A vine Sapindace^e. 37 

U 5, with 5 stamens, and generally a blunt spur Viola ce^e. 14 

U 5, with 10 or more stamens. No spur. Fruit a legume Legtjmtxos^e. 43 

m Pistils many, entirely distinct, simple Raxtjxculace.e. 1 

m Pistils 3—5, united more or less completely Hypericace^e. 16 

m Pistils 5—10, united, with sessile stigmas and many petals Ficoide.e. 61 

n Pistil solitary, simple. Petals 6—9. Stamens 12—18 Berberidace^e. 6 

n Pistil 3 or more, distinct, simple. Flowers all symmetrical . . . .Crassulace^e. 46 

n Pistils 2, consolidated with the 5 stamens. Juice milky Order 100 

o Carpels as many as the sepals . {tin) 

o Carpels fewer in number than the sepals, .(oo) 

nn Anthers opening at the top. Flowers 4-parted ;Melastomace.e. 52 

nn Anthers opening laterally. Styles united into 1 Oxagracee. 54 

nn Anthers opening laterally. Styles or stigmas distinct. . .Halorage^e. 43 

oo Each carpel QC -seeded. Styles 2 Saxifr agaceje. 45 

oo Each carpel 1-seeded. Styles 2 or 3 Araliace-e. 64 

oo Each carpel 1-seeded. Style 1 (double) Corxace^e. G5 

p Style 3-cleft at the summit. Flowers 5-parted Portueacace^e. -.20 

1 p Style and stigma 1, undivided. Flowers 7-parted Order 81 

q Leaves pinnate, with interpetiolar stipules Zygophyllace^e. 29 

q Leaves simple, toothed or lobed. Flowers cruciform. Stamens 6 Crucifere. 17 

q Leaves simple, toothed or lobed. Flowers 5-merous. Stamens 10. . .Geraxiace^e. 30 
q Leaves simple, entire . . (qq) 

qq Petals and stamens on the throat of the calyx . Lythracfle. 123 

qq Petals on the torus. .(*) 



214 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 

* Flowers irregular, unsymmetrical Polygalace^3. 42 

* Flowers regular, 2-(or 3-)parted throughout Elatinace^e. 18 

* Flowers regular, 5-parted. Leaves punctate Hypekic aceje. 16 

* Flowers regular, C-parted. Leaves dotless Caryophyllace^j. 19 

r Pistil a simple carpel, becoming a legume. Stamens 10—100 Legumlnos^e. 43 

r Pistil compound, viz . (rr) 

rr 3-carpelled. Flowers perfect. Leaves digitate Sapindace^e. 37 

rr 3-carpelled. Flowers monoecious. Cultivated Begoniace^e. 59 

rr 5-carpelled.— * Stipules present. Cultivated Geraniace^. 30 

— * Stipules none. Native Order 78 

s Stamens on the receptacle, in several sets. Leaves dotted Hypericaceje. 16 

s Stamens on the receptacle, in 1 set. Lvs. fleshy. (S. Fla) . . Clusia. Guttifer^e. (21) 
Stamens on the calyx . . (ss) 

ss Sepals, petals, and ovaries indefinite . . Calycanthace^e. 3 

ss Sepals, &c, definite. Leaves dotted, entire Myrtace^j. 51 

ss Sepals, &c. , definite. Leaves dotless, entire Lythraceje. 53 

ss Sepals, &c, definite. Leaves dotless, subdentate Saxifragace^e. 45 

t Filaments united into 1 set (monad elphous). Petals convolute. Au) 
t Filaments united into 1 or several sets. Petals imbricate . . {uu) 
t Filament distinct . . (tf) 

tt Petals 6, valvate, lurid. Erect shrubs Anonace^e. 4 

tt Petals 3—9, imbricate. Trees or shrubs Magnoliace^e. 2 

tt Petals 4—8, imbricate. Climbing or trailing Menjspermaceje. 5 

tt Petals 4, imbricated. Shrubs, S Capparidace^e. 12 

u Anthers 1-celled. Sepals valvate in the bud Malvaceae. 23 

u Anthers 2-celled. Sepals valvate. Handsome tree Sterculiace^e. 24 

u Anthers 2-celled. Sepals imbricate. A large tree in S. Fla..CANELLACE^}. (22) 
uu Leaves punctate with pellucid dots, jointed to stalk. . Aurantiace^. 32 
uu Leaves opaque. .(*) 

* Sepals valvate. Flowers small Tiliacejb. 25 

* Sepals imbricate. Flowers large . Camelliace^e. 26 

v Style 1, with many stigmas. Green fleshy shrubs Cactace^e. 60 

v Styles several or 1, each with 1 stigma. Woody trees or shrubs Rosacea. 44 

v Style 1, with 1 stigma. Stam. in 5 sets, long, red, very showy Myrtace^e. 51 

w Trailing vines, with crimson fls. Ovaries Oo, in a little spike Magnoliaceje. 2 

w Climbing vines, with white-greenish fls. Ova. 2—6, capitate Menispermace^e. 5 

w Erect shrubs, with yellow flowers, 6-parted. Pistil only 1 Berberidace^e. 6 

w Erect shrubs (S. Fla.) with yellow fls. Pistils 5, 2-ovuled, 1-sded. . . Surianace^e. (62) 
w Trees, with greenish fls., — * and pinnate lvs. Pist. 3-5, l-ovuled...SiMARUBACEJE. 34 

— * and simple leaves. Follicles 3—5 Sterculiacejs. 24 

x Flowers 4-parted. Stamens 8. (Fls. red or roseate, drooping). . .ONAGRACEiE. 54 
x Flowers 4-parted. Sta. 8. Fls. light yellow. Coasts, S. Fla..RmzopoRACE^E. (49) 

x Flowers 4-parted. Stamens 4. Flowers whitish, in cymes Cornace^e. 65 

x Flowers 5-parted. . (xx) 

xx Ovary 5-carpelled, 5-styled, 5-seeded Araliace^e. 64 

xx Ovary 5-carpelled, 1-styled, 1-seeded. S. Fla Combretaceje. 50 

xx Ovary 2-4 carpelled, QO -seeded . . , Saxifragace^e. 45 

y Leaves opposite. Stem climbing with tendrils or radicles . Vitace^e. 41 
y Lvs. alternate. St. erect, or climbing without tendrils. . Rhamnace<e. 40 

z Leaves simple. Stamens 5. Carpels 3—5, style 1, short Celastraceje. 38 

z Leaves simple. Sta. 10. Carpels and sty. 3. S. ~F[&. .ByrsonimaMAUPmwiAcvm. (39) 

z Leaves pinnate, or palmately lobed. Carpels and styles 2 or 3 Sapindace^:. 37 

z Leaves pinnate. .(*) 

* Stamens 10. Small tree with blue flowers. S. Fla Zygophyllaceje. 29 

* Stamens 2. Carpels 1 or 2. Style 1 Order 101 






ANALYSIS OF THE NATCKAL ORDElte. 215 

* Stamens 8. Carpel and style 1 Bceserace^:. 35 

yy Filaments 10, united into a tube or cup. Flowers in panicles Meliace^e. 27 

yy Filaments 6 — 10, distinct. Flowers small, white, in racemes Burserace^e. 3n 

yy Filaments 6 — 10, distinct. Fls. small, white or hoary, paniculate. . Sapindace^e. 37 
yy Filaments 5, distinct.. (*) 

* Leaves pellucid-punctate , Rtttace^e. 31 

* Leaves opaque. Ovary 1-celled, 1-seeded Anacardiace^e. 36 

zz Petals 4, yellow, strap-shaped, appearing in late Autumn Hamamelace^e. 47 

zz Petals 4—7, cyanic (rarely yellow), rounded or short, .(t) 

t Style 0, the stigmas 1, 4, or 5, sessile. Drupe 4-6-seeded Order 7-1 

t Styles (or stigmas) 3, but the drupe only 1-seeded Anacardiace^e. 3t! 

t Styles 3, capsule many-sded. Lvs. minute and scale-form. .Tamariscine^e. 24 b%* 

t Style l,..(t) 

X Capsule 3-seeded. Seeds with a scarlet aril Celastracele. 31 

X Caps. GO-seeded. Clusters fragrant. Lvs. evergreen. Cult. . . Pittosporack * 
% Capsule with few or many seeds. Native shrubs Order 7, 



B. Cohort 2. GAMOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES. 

§ Stamens (6 — GO) more numerous than the lobes of the corolla. .(9) 
| Stamens (2 — 12) fewer than the corolla lobes or of the same number. . (2) 
2 Ovary inferior, = adherent to the tube of the calyx. .(3) 
2 Ovary superior, = free from the tube of the calyx. .(4) 
3 Stamens cohering by their anthers . . (c) 
3 Stamens entirely distinct. .(e0 

4 Flowers regular and the stamens symmetrical .. (5) 
4 Flowers regular and the stamens reduced to 2 or 4. .(n) 
4 Flowers irregular. Stamens (except in 3 or 4 species) unsymmetrical. .(oj 
5 Stamens opposite to the lobes of the corolla (and distinct), .(e) 
5 Stamens alternate with the corolla lobes (rarely connate) . . (6) 
6 Shrubs, trees, with the carpels or stigmas 3 — 6. . (/) 
6 Herbs 1-10-carpelled, or shrubs 2-carpelled . . (7) 
7 Ovary 1, deeply 4-parted or 4-partible, forming 4 achenia. ,{g) 
7 Ovaries 2, distinct (often covered by the stamens) . . (h) 
7 Ovary 1 compound, — * one-celled.. (#) 

— * two-six-celled . * (m) 
9 Flowers irregular (rarely regular and the fruit a legume) . . (a) 
% Flowers regular and the fruit never a legume (§ 165). . {b) 

a Flowers 1- or 2-sided, with 1 or 2 blunt spurs. Stamens 6, in 2 sets. , .Order 10 
a Flowers 1-sided, no spur..(*) 

* Leaves compound. Fruit a legume Order 49 

* Leaves simple. Fruit 2-celled, 2-seeded Order 42 

* Leaves simple. Fruit 5-celled Ericaceae. 73 

ft Corolla lobes convolute in bud. Stamens 00, united into 1 tube Order 23 

b Corolla lobes imbricate in bud. Stamens GO, in 1 or several sels — Order 26 
b Corolla lobes imbricate or valvate. . (u) 

u Stamens 10—24. Styles 5—12 Order 46 

u Stamens 5—10. Style 1. Capsule 5-celled Ericace^j. 73 

v Stamens 8—00. Style 1. Nut 1-5-seeded STTRAOACRfi. 76 

u Stamens 8. Styles 4. Berry 8sccdcd Ebbnacejb. Tl 

u Stamens 8. Style 1. Drupe 1-seeded Olaoactlb. 80 (p. 447) 



i 



216 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 

e Flowers m a compact head surrounded by an involucre Composite. 7C, 

c Flowers separate, irregular, perfect. Plants erect or trailing.. . . . . .LobeliacEuE. 71 

C Flowers separate, regular, imperfect. Weak vines Order 58 

d Leaves alternate. Flowers 5-parted, regular, separate Campanulace^e. 72 

d Leaves alternate. Fls. irregular, 5-parted. S. Fla,.. Sccevola. Goodeniace^e. (71$, 

d Leaves opposite, with stipules between, or verticillate Rubiacejs. 61 

d Leaves opposite. Stipules none, .(v) 

v Stamens 5 — 4. Ovaries 2-5-celled Caprifoliaceje. 60 

v Stamens 3—3. Ovaries 1-celled Valeriana ce^e. 68 

v Stamens 4. Flowers capitate Dipsace^e. 69 

€ Herbs. Ovary with 5 styles and but 1 seed PlumbaginacejE. 83 

€ Herbs. Ovary with 1 style and many seeds Primulace^e. 81 

€ Trees or shrubs. Appendages between the stamens Sapotace^e. 78 

f Trees or shrubs. No appendages between the stam. S. Fla. . Myrsinace^e. (79) 

/ Leaves opposite. Style 1. Drupe 4-seeded. Herbs, shrubs.. Verbenace^e. 90 

/ Leaves alternate . . (w) 

w Drupe 4-6-seeded. Shrubs, trees Aqtjifoliace^e. 74 

w Drupe 1-seeded. Thorny. S. Fla Ximenia. Olacace^j. (80) 

w Capsule 2-5-celled, OO-seeded Ericaceae. 73 

q Herbs, with alternate leaves, generally rough-hairy Borraginace^e. 92 

h Stigmas connate. Flower bud convolute Apocynace^e. 90 

k Stigmas connate. Flower bud valvate Asclepiadace^e. 100 

h Stigmas distinct. Flowers minute, yellow Convolvulace^e. 95 

fe Ovule solitary. Corolla limb entire Order 103 

k Ovules several. Leaves cleft and lobed Hydrophyllace^e. 93 

k Ovules several. Leaves or leaflets entire.. (x) 

x Flowers not spicate Gentianaceje. 97 

x Flowers spicate \ _ 

ii j- i ™ -t j t Plantaginaceje. 82 

m Leaves all radical. Flowers spiked ...» 

m Leaves opposite. Ovary 2-celled Logamiace^e. 98 

m Leaves alternate . . (y) 

m Leaves opposite. Ovary 3-celled. Not twining. :\ .. PoleM oniace^. 94 

y Ovary 3-celled. Not twining ) 

y Ovary 2-4-celled. Twining Convolvulace^e. 95 

y Ovary 2-4-celled, 4-seeded. Erect Borraginace^e. 92 

y Ovary 2-celled, OO-seeded. —z Styles 2 Hydrophyllace^e. 93 

—z Style 1 Solanaceje. 96 

n Stamens 4. Ova. 4-(rarely 1- or 2-)celled, with as many sds . . Verbenace J3.90 

w Stamens 2. Ovary 2-celled, forming 1 or 2 seeds Oleace^e. 101 

Ovary deeply 4-parted, forming 4 (or fewer) achenia. .(p) 

O Ovary entire. 4-ovuled, 4- or fewer-seeded. Leaves opposite.. Verbenacejs. 90 

Ovary entire, OO-ovuled, 00- or several-seeded.. ($) 

p Leaves opposite. Stems square. Stamens 2 — 4 Labiat^e. 91 

p Leaves alternate. Stems round. Stamens 5 Borraginace^e 92 

e Trees or climbing shrubs. Seeds winged Bignoniace^e 81? 

$ Trees. Seeds not winged Scrophul. 88. Erect shrubs Ericaceae. 73 

Herbs.— ss Leafless parasites. Native. Ovary 1-celled Orobanchace^e. 85 

—ss Leafy at base or in the water. Flowers spurred. . LentibulacejE. 84 
—ss Leafy. Flowers large, spurless. Ovary 1-celled... Gesneriaceje. 87 

~ss Leafy. Spurless. Fruit 4- or 5-celled § Bignoniacile. 86 

—55 Leafy. Fruit 2-celled. . (t) 

1 Seeds on hooks or cups. Corolla mostly convolute Acanthace2E. 89 

t Soeds without hooks. Corolla imbricated in the bud Sobophulabiace^j. 88 

I Seeds without hooks. Corolla mostlv nlicate Solanace^. 9C 



ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 217 

C. Cohort 3. APETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES. 

1 Htaute herbaceous, the flowers not in aments (except Hamulus, 114). .(2) 
^ Plants woody,— shrubs or trees . . (8) 

2 Flowers with a regular calyx (or a calyx-like involucre). (3) 
2 Flowers achlamydeous, — neither calyx nor corolla. . (k) 

3 Calyx tube adherent to the ovary, limb lobed, toothed, or entire .(6) 
3 Calyx free from the ovary, sometimes enclosing it.. (4) 
i Ovaries several, entirely distinct, each 1-styled, l-ovuled..(0r) 
\ Ovary 1 only, simple or compound. .(5) 
5 Style or stigma 1 only . . (6) 
5 Styles or stigmas 2—12. . (7) 

6 Ovary 1-ovuled, bearing but 1 seed. .(£) 
6 Ovary many-ovuled, bearing many seeds. .(<D 
7 Ovary 1-3-ovuled, 1-3-seeded. .(e) 
7 Ovary 4- OO-ovuled, 4- OO-seeded. .(h) 
8 Flowers not in aments, with the leaves opposite .. (n) 
8 Flowers not in aments, with the leaves alternate .. (10) 
8 Flowers imperfect, the sterile only in aments. .(v) 
8 Flowers imperfect, both the fertile and sterile in aments.. (fl?) 
9 Stamens 1 — 12, as many or twice as many as the stigmas. .(a) 
9 Stamens 2 — 10, not symmetrical with the 1 or 2 stigmas, .(ft) 
10 Style or stigma 1. Fruit 1-seeded. . (11) 
10 Styles or stigmas 2. . (s) 
10 Styles or stigmas 3—9. . (0 

11 Calyx free from the ovary.. (p) 
11 Calyx adherent to the ovary. . (r) 

a Stigmas and cells of the ovary 1 — 4. Stamens 1—8 , Oedees 48, or 54 

a Stigmas and cells of the ovary 6. Stamens 6 or 12. . .Aristolochtace^e. 102 

b Styles 2. C vary many-seeded. Stamens 8 — 10 Order 45 

b Style 1. Ovary 1- or 2-seeded. Stamens 5 Santalactl<e. 110 

c Flowers perfect. Calyx 4-lobed. Stamens 1 — 4 Order 44 

€ Flov^prs perfect. Calyx entire, funnel-shaped, colored.. Nyctaginace^e. 101 

e Flowers diclinous. Calyx 4-5-parted, green Urticaoe^e. 114 

d Stamens 4, opposite to the 4 sepals. Leaves numerous Order 5C 

d Stamens 4, opposite to the 4 sepals. Leaves about 6 Order 145 

d Stamens 5. alternate with the 5 sepals Order 81 

d Stamens 00. Leaves large and showy. Cultivated Order 9 

€ Fruit 3-(rarely 6-)seeded, with 3 (often cleft) styles Euphorbiace^:. 113 

e Fruit 1-seeded. Stipules sheathing the stems — Polygonace^:. 104 

€ Fruit 1-celled, mostly 1-seeded. Stipules none, (f) 

f Calyx with scarious bractlets outside Amarantace jbl 107 

/ Calyx naked (double in 1 genus). Lvs. alternate. . Chenopodiace,e. 106 

/ Calyx naked. Leaves opposite Order 19 

g Stamens hypogynous — on the torus Order 1 

g Stamens perigynous — on the calyx Order 44 

h Leaves opposite. Fruit circumscissile, a pyxis Order 61 

h Leaves opposite. Fruit 4-5-valved, a capsule Order 19 

h Leaves alternate . (i) 

i Fruit 5-horned, 5-celled, a capsule Order 40 

i Fruit a fleshy 4-10-seeded berry Phytolascace^:. 105 

i Fruit circumscissile, a utricle Amarantaoe^s. 107 

k Flowers on a spadix with a spathe. Monocotyledons .Ordes 180 

k Flowers in a long naked spike. Stamens 6 or 7 SAUBURinRA 115 

k Flowers solitary, axillary, minute. Aquatic plants. . (m) 



218 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 

m Stamen 1, styles 2. Leaves opposite Callitri2hace2& 11C 

m Stamens 2, styles 2. Leaves alternate, dissected. .Podostemiace^e. ll r « 
m Sta. 12-24, style 1. Lvs. verticillate, dissected.. CERATOPHYLLACEiE. 118 

n Fruit a double samara (2- winged) Order 37 

n Fruit a single samara (1 -winged), or a drupe. Stamens 2 Order 101 

n Fruit not winged,— o 3-seeded. Stamens 4 . . . Euphorbiace^e. 113 

— o 1-seeded. Stamens 4 or 8 Eleagnace^e. 112 

— o 1-seeded. Stamens 3. Parasites.. Loranthace^j. 109 

p Anthers opening by valves. Calyx colored Laurace^e. 108 

p Anthers opening by slits. — q Calyx colored. Stam. 8 THYMELACEiE. Ill 

— q Calyx greenish ; racemed Order 37 

— q Cal. green; spiked. S. Fla..CoMBRETACEuE. (50) 

r Ovary and seed only 1, in the juicy drupe. Trees Order 65 

r Ovaries 2 — 4, seed 1. Fruit a drupe or nut. Shrubs. . .Santalace^e. 110 

8 Stamens numerous Order 47 

8 Stamens as many as the calyx lobes § 1. URTiCACEiE. 114 

t Leaves pinnate. Pistils 5, scarcely united Order 31 

t Leaves simple, linear, evergreen. Shrubs heath-like . . Empetrace^e. 119 
t Leaves simple, expanded. Fls. 3-parted. Fruit dry .. Euphorbiace^e. 113 

t Leaves simple, expanded. Fls. 4- or 5-parted. Fruit fleshy Order 40 

v Nut drupaceous, naked. Leaves pinnate Juglandace^e. 121 

v Nut or nuts in a cup or involucre. Leaves simple Cupuliferje. 122 

X Fruit fleshy, aggregated (sorosis). Juice (or sap) milky. ..§ 2. Urticace^e. 114 
x Fruit dry. Plants with a watery juice or sap. . (y) 

y Aments globular, racemed. Nutlets 2-celled, woolly Order 65 

y Aments globular, solitary. Nutlets 1-celled, 1-seeded Platanace^e. 120 

y Aments cylindrical or oblong. . (z) 

z Ovary 2-celled, 2-ovuled, 1-seeded. Fruit often winged. .Betulace^e. 123 

z Ovary 1-celled, 1-seeded. Fruit often fleshy Myricace^e. 124 

z Ovary many-ovuled, many-seeded. Seeds comous Salic ace je. 125 



D. Cohort 4. THE CONOIDS 

* Leaves pinnate. Stem simple, palm-like. Sterile flowers in cones Cycadaceje. 12(j 

* Leaves simole. Stem branching. Fertile flowers in cones Conifers. 127 

* Leaves simpie. Stem branching. Fertile flowers solitary Taxacejb. 128 



E. Cohort 5. THE SPADICEOUS MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

1 Trees or shrubs with palmi-cleft leaves all from one terminal bud, \ >t p ALMACEjfi< jfg 

and a branching " spadix" from a spathe ' 

■[ Herbs with simple, rarely ternate leaves. Spadix simple. .(2) 

2 Plants frond-like, minute, floating loose on the water Lemnacejs. 131 

2 Plants with stem and leaves, rooting and fixed. .(3) 

3 Spadix evident, in a spathe or on a scape Arace m. 130 

3 Spadix obscure or spike-like. Stems leafy.. (4) 

4 Flowers with no perianth, densely spicate or capitate Typhace^e. 132 

4 Flowers with a perianth or not. Plants submersed Naiadace^. 138 



ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 219 



P. Cohort 6. FLORIDE^E, or FLOWERING MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

^ Flowers (not on a spadix) in a small, dense, involucrate head. .(0) 
1 Flowers (not on a spadix) solitary, racemed, spicate. &c. .(2) 
2 Perianth tube adherent to the ovary wholly or partly. .(4) 
8 Perianth free from the ovary. (3) 

8 Petals and sepals differently colored (except in Medeola, 147).. (e) 
3 Petals and sepals similarly colored. .(5) 
4 Flowers imperfect ($9 or i a $)..(a) 
4 Flowers perfect. . (o) 

5 Leaves net-veined, broad. . (k) 
5 Leaves parallel-veined. . (6) 

6 Styles and often the stigmas also united into one. .(m) 
6 Styles and etigmas 3, distinct, .(n) 

a Low aquatic herbs '. Hydrocharedace^l. ',35 

a Climbing shrubby vines Dioscoriace^e. 143 

b Anthers 1 or 2, on the pistil (gynandrous) Orcfiidaceje. 137 

b Anthers 1 or 5, free from the pistil. Leaves ample Scit amines. 13 c 

b Anthers 3 or 6 . . (c) 

c Perianth woolly or mealy outside. Ovary half free H^madorace^: 141 

c Perianth glabrous outside, .(d) 

d Anthers 3, opening crosswise, inward Burmaxxiaceje. 133 

d Anthers 3, opening lengthwise, outward Iridace^. 142 

d Anthers 6, opening inward A3£ARYLLrDACE,E. 139 

e Pistils 3 — 00, distinct, forming achenia in fruit Alismace^:. 134 

Pistils 3 only, more or less united, .(g) 

q Leaves verticillate, in 1 or 2 whorls. Stigmas 3 Trllliace^e. 140 

g Leaves alternate. . (h) 

h Stigmas 3. Plants with dry leaves, often epiphytes Bromeliace^e. 140 

h Stigmas united into 1 Coxmelynace^e, 151 

k Flowers perfect, 4-parted Roxburghiace.e. 145 

Jc Flowers dioecious. 6-parted Smelaceje. 144 

m Flowers colored, regular. Stamens 6 (4 in one species) Llliace^e. 147 

m Flowers colored, irregular or else triandrous Pontederiace^e. 149 

m Flowers greenish, glume-like or scarious Juxcaceje. 150 

n Leaves rush-like. Ovary of 3 1-seeded carpels \ . .Melaxthaceje. 148 

ft Leaves linear, lanceolate. &c. Ovary 6 - 00 - seeded. .. I " " 

o Petals yellow, small but showy. Plant acaulescent Xyeidace^e. 152 

o Petals white, minute, fringed. Plant acaulescent Eriocauloxace.e. 154 



G. Cohort 7. GRAMINOIDE^E, or GRASS-LIKE MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

T Flowers with 6 bracts in 2 whorls (sepals and petals). Culms solid Order 150 

T Flower with a single bract (glume). Culm solid, sheaths entire Cyperacele 153 

T Flower with several bracts (glumes and pales). Culm hollow. I Gramtnele lfifi 

Sheaths split on one side. Ovary 1-seeded. Styles 2 i " 



SUB-KINGDOM II. Class I. Cohorts 1, 2, and 3. 

§ Plants with well-developed foliage. .(^). 

1 Leaves few, mostly ample and from subterranean rhizomes .. (a) 



220 



ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 



a Fruit borne on the leaves which are often more or less contracted. .Filices. 159 
T Leaves numerous, small, mostly spirally imbricated on the stem, .(b) 

b Fruit axillary, sessile, opening by a slit Lycopodiace^. 157 

Plants with verticillate branches instead of leaves, .(c) 

c Fruit in terminal spikes Equisetace2e. 158 



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